continue their journey to C. Young students should be careful not to translate protinus directly.'

Literas.] À letter.' Litera,-a, a letter of the alphabet.

Suorum.] His and their friends:' it must refer to the friends of the nom. in the principal sentence. It might, therefore, simply mean 'his' friends; it could not refer to the friends merely of the Barcine leaders.

Pars altera: 'the other party,' viz. the aristocratic party headed by Hanno.

X. 2. Unus.] 'Alone.'

Causam fœderis egit.] Argued the case for the treaty.' The stock translation of causam agere, to plead the cause,' is a bad one: (1) because the cause of a person is very different from his case, which is his cause reduced to a proper shape for presentment; (2) because agere involves much more than pleading, it involves the consideration and management, in fact all that we understand by the conduct' of a case. Fœderis: viz. the treaty made by the Romans with Hasdrubal for the boundary of the Ebro; see 2.7.

Propter auctoritatem suam.] 'On account of his worth.' Auctoritas is a very difficult word to translate; perhaps the only safe rule would be never to translate it' authority.' When we speak of a man's authority, we usually mean an authority vested in him; but auctoritas usually means that quality residing in a man which enables him to give a virtue to things which they do not in themselves possess. Auctoritas, therefore, is the weight that belongs to the mere idea of the character or office of a person.

3. Monuisse se.] The construction of the accusative with the infinitive depends on dixit, implied in the preceding sentence.

4. Ex bellis bella serendo.] By sowing wars upon wars.' Ex is idiomatically used with an ablative to express continuous succession in time.

5. Fadera.] A Carthaginian fleet appeared on the coasts of Latium in the heat of the war with Pyrrhus to offer its assistance to the Romans. The assistance was then refused; but very soon afterwards a treaty was concluded between Rome and Carthage, in which both nations engaged to reserve to themselves the right of assisting one another.' (Arnold, ii. p. 434.) This was about B.C. 279.

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6. Jus gentium sustulit.] 'Has broken the law of foreigners.' It does not do to translate jus gentium the law of nations.' because this latter implies notions of international relations which were foreign to the Roman mind. The Latin for 'international law' is jus fetiale, which was the branch of law which regulated declarations of war, making treaties, &c. The jus gentium is opposed to the jus civile, or the pure native law which bound Roman citizens in their dealings. The jus gentium was the sum of the principles and rules of law that were found to be common to all people, and which was, therefore, suitable for regulating the dealings of foreigners with Roman citizens or with each other.

Hi, unde.] Antecedent and relative: these Romans, from whom,' &c.

Fraus.]

Hurt' or 'injury.' "Without prejudice to our state, they demand,' &c.

7. Egates Erycemque.] For the allusions in these two words see Vocabulary.

8. Tarento non abstinueramus.] The offence committed by the Carthaginians with respect to Tarentum was this: The popular party in Tarentum were tired of the foreign garrison and the governor left by Pyrrhus, and sent to the Carthaginian commander in Sicily to deliver them from Milo's dominion. A Carthaginian fleet appeared accordingly before the harbour, while L. Papirius Cursor, the Roman consul, was besieging the town by land. The Roman government complained of this C. appearance on the coasts of Italy when no request had been made by Rome.' (Arnold, ii. 436.) But this was in B.C. 272, and it was not till B.C. 264 that the Romans made use of this pretext to put the Carthaginians technically in the wrong at the commencement of the First Punic War.

9. Unde jus stabat.] Ei unde: to them on whose side the right stood.' Cf. hi unde, § 6. Stare ab aliquo, 'to stand on a man's side.'

11. Dedemus ergo Hannibalem?] Ergo is used in consecutive interrogations; its force here is, 'Well, but does it follow that we shall give up H. ?'

Scio, &c.] I know that my voice in that matter is feeble, because of my feud with his father.' Auctoritas, the intrinsic weight of his opinion. Eo, quod.]

does not mean

'On that account, because.' Jam haberemus we should be at war now with the Romans.' because jam refers to the time of Hamilcar's death, and means 'immediately' in reference to that date. 'We should have shortly then had war.'

war.'

Tamquam furiam facemque.] As an evil genius to fire this The furies were represented as carrying ignited torches, so that the fury and the torch' is a hendiadys for the fury bearing the torch.' Cf. pateris_libamus et auro = aureis pateris, V. Æn. i. 739. Similarly Eschines calls Demosthenes the evil genius of Greece, τὸν τῆς Ἑλλάδος ἀλιτήριον, Æsch. in. Ct. 157.

Odi.] I 'hate' him personally: detestor, I 'ban' him, because I see the wrath of heaven upon him.

12. Deposcere.] The regular verb for to demand for punish

ment.'

13. Ita censeo.] 'I move thus,' i. e. 'in these terms.'

XI. 1. Adeo.] Literally, to that point;' here translate 'so completely was all the senate for H.' Hannibalis is in the genitive of possession after erat: 'the senate was H.'s'=' was devoted to H.'

Infestiusque, &c.] And they charged Hanno with having spoken more venomously than Flaccus.' Loquutum esse understood they accused H. that he had spoken.'

2. Vetustissima.] 'Immemorial.' Societati, governed by

præ in composition. There was said to have been a treaty between Rome and Carthage as early as B.C. 509, i. e. nearly 300 years before the Second Punic War. Polybius translates the original record, engraved on a bronze plate and preserved to his time in the Capitol. The genuineness of this treaty has been disputed, but not on sufficient grounds. By the terms of this treaty Rome is not to trade to the more remote possessions of Carthage in Africa, and Carthage is to build no forts in Latium. This treaty was renewed somewhere about B.C. 350, and a third time in the year B.C. 306.

3. Stationibus.] Advanced posts' in front of H.'s camp.

4. Pro contione.] Not 'before,' but 'in,' general assembly. Pro in this connexion means 'from the front of.' So pro æde is not 'before the temple' but 'in the front of the temple.'

Militum.] The genitive of possession after fore: 'should be given up to the soldiers.'

6. Qua patefactum oppidum.] Where the inhabited quarter had been exposed.' See 8. 5, una continentibus ruinis nudaverat u bem.

7. Turris mobilis.] These moveable towers were made of beams, faced on three sides with iron. They were also covered with raw hides and quilts against fire. They were divided into stories, tabulata; and hence they are called turres contabulatæ. In all the stories were placed the engines of war, tormenta. In the lowest story was a battering ram. They also carried gangways and scaling ladders. The towers were placed on wheels and pushed up to the walls by men stationed behind.

Catapultis balistisque.] Perhaps it will hardly do to render catapulta by Chaucer's' trepeget,' though Du Cange (sub 'Trebuchetum') explains this to be the ancient engine. But 'mangonel' might perhaps be revived for balista. The young student is apt to overlook the importance of artillery in ancient warfare, and the perfection to which it was brought. The balista threw stones, the catapulta darts. The baliste threw stones from 2lbs. to 336lbs. in weight, and the more powerful had a range of a quarter of a mile.

8. Camenta, &c.] Because the rough blocks had not been set in mortar, but lined with clay.' Camenta, contr. from cædimenta, rough-hewn stones, as they came from the quarry. The walls had been made by ramming clay tight between two shells of stones. This was a common way of building in hot countries like Spain and Africa, where the sun baked the clay into bricks.

9. Patentia ruinis.] exposed by the downfall.' 10. Locum editum.]

an adjective.

Murum-ducunt.]

Understand loca: 'through the parts

Some high ground.' Editus used as

'Build an inner wall by the part of

the city that was not yet taken.' Ab is here used to denote proximity, not separation. Ducere is used of building things that have more length than breadth.

12. Omnia hostium essent.]

was in the hands of the enemy.'

'Everything was the enemy's' =

13. Qui duo, &c.] Two tribes who, exasperated by the severity of the conscription, having arrested the recruiting officers, and having suggested a fear of their revolt.' Consternare, 'to excite to sedition or revolt.' The conquisitores were a pressgang employed to go about the country and impress soldiers when there was a difficulty in completing a levy.

Omiserunt mota arma.] Literally, let go the arms which had been moved by them;' translate laid down the arms they had taken up.'

XII. 3. Arcem may be translated here 'stronghold' or 'fortress,' because Saguntum was a Greek town, so that arx is used for acropolis. Almost all ancient cities were built about a hill; but, whereas in Greek cities the crown of the hill was fortified against the city, in Roman cities it was scarcely ever so fortified. Arc is connected with arceo, in which we see the root of ρkos, 'a fence.' Thus arr and our 'keep' both express the same idea. All the outer lines of Saguntum had now been forced, so that the people were now cooped up in the heart of their city.

4. Temptata-spes.] A faint hope of peace was raised.' Insciis Saguntinis.] Ablative absolute: 'the S. being ignorant'='without the knowledge of the S.'

Moturum.] For se moturum esse. Aliquid, used adverbially, to some extent.'

Movebant.] The imperfect: 'when tears were not touching. H.,' i. e. 'when he found that tears,' &c.

Tristes belongs to the predicate: since the terms were being obtained harsh''since the terms which he was obtaining were harsh.' Ut explains tristes; as you would expect from an exasperated conqueror.'

Moriturum.] For eum moriturum esse.

5. Postulabatur redderent res.] 'The demands were that they should give back to the T. their own.' Redderent is in the subjunctive, because it expresses a command in oblique narration, postulabatur being used as a verb of telling.

Cum singulis vestimentis.] With one suit a piece.'

6. Leges depends on accepturos. Abnuente is more than negante; it involves the original idea of abnuo, 'to shake the head in disapproval.'

Interpretem.] A negotiator.' Interpres originally means only an agent between two parties.

7. Prætorem.] Livy seems to me to use this word here with much greater nicety than has been generally appreciated. We are told that prætorem here means the chief magistrate of S., because prætor is an old term for the consul. But it means a consul in a particular relation, viz. as the leader of the army (from præire), whence Polybius translates prator στρατηγός. Now Saguntum, being a Greek republic, would naturally have the Athenian system of magistrates,

in which the third archon was called & woλéμaρxos. And, curiously enough, just as the duties of the prætor became rather judicial than military, so the polemarch's duties came to be chiefly the protection and superintendence of the resident aliens, so that he greatly resmbled the prætor peregrinus at Rome. I think, therefore, that by prætorem Livy rather means the foreign magistrate than the first magistrate of Saguntum.

8. Senatus datus est.] 'A senate, i.e. an audience, was granted to Alorcus.'

XIII. 1. Sicut-ita.] These adverbs are used like uèv and de to balance their respective clauses against each other. Remodel the sentence thus: if Alco had come to Hannibal, and had reported to you accordingly.'

3. But that I speak what I speak before you, for your sake (in your interests), and for the sake of no one else, let just this be my guarantee.' Alterius, of a person, not a thing; he means 'not of Hannibal.'

4. Magis necessariam, &c.] A peace in distress rather than a fair one. Necessariam, here used like avaykaîos, is very difficult to translate: it means much more than 'necessary' or 'unavoidable;' it means such a peace as none but men starving would accept.

5. Ita-si.] Simply-if.' Ita is often used in connexion with si to express the terms or conditions on which a thing depends.

6. Vobis] Governed in the dative by the ad in com position.

Adsignaturus.] 'Intending to appoint a place for you.' Adsignare is the technical term for the distribution of public land.

8. Hæc imperat.] Enjoins this on you.' Hec, the cognat. accus. after imperat. Vobis suadet, 'recommends to you.' Vobis depends on both imperat and suadet.

Remissurum, sc. Hannibalem remissurum esse.

Sinatis is in the subj., because it is in a dependent sentence after the verb of thinking, censeo.

XIV. 1. The order of the first clause is as follows:-multitudine circumfusa ad hæc audienda, quum populi concilium permixtum esset senatui. Populi concilium is 'the general assembly of the people:' here again Livy reminds us that he is writing of a Greek state by contrasting the Bouλń with the ἐκκλησία.

2. Perque ruinam-interficerentur. The principal sentence is Hannibal urbem cepit: the order in the dependent sentence is quum cohors Panorum impetu facto per ruinam ejus signum imperatori dedisset. Livy does not mean that the company purposely made any signal to H., but that their charge through the breach was practically a signal to him.

3. Momento momento temporis.] In an instant.'

=

Quod imperium crudele.] Fuit understood: Imperium here a general order.'