the terminations uc, o, orsum are usual; as huc hither, istuc and illuc thither, quo whither, eo thither, eodem to the same place, quocunque whithersoever, ultro citroque thither and hither, isto thither, intro inward, alio elsewhither, dextrorsum to the right, sinistrorsum to the left, deorsum downwards, sursum upwards &c. c) to the question, whence? in which the terminations inc and de are usual; as hinc hence, istinc and illinc thence; inde thence, unde whence, both interrogatively and otherwise, undecunque whencesoever, undique for undeque from all sides, aliunde from elsewhere, alicunde from somewhere &c. Note. The words hic, huc, hinc, in the Epistles of Cicero denote the place of the writer; istic, istuc, istinc, the place of him to whom the letter is sent; illic, illuc, illinc, a third place e.g. when Cicero writes to Gaul, scire velim, quid istic agatur, istic means in Gallia istuc mittam, i. e. in Galliam istinc, i. e e Gallia. If in the same letter he speaks of Spain, he uses illic, illuc, illinc; as scire velim quid illic geratur, i. e. in Hispania: illuc misi, i. e. in Hispaniam.

2.) Some denote a time: as quando when, with and without a question; quandocunque and quandoque whenever; cras to-morrow, hodie to-day, nunc now, iam already, mane early, sero late, olim at some time, either past, present, or future; diu long, ubi when, without a question; as, when I heard, when I shall hear &c.: dum while, until; quotidie daily, nuper lately, modo just now, of past time; as, I have just now heard it: cumprimum as soon as, quamprimum immediately, simul with ac or atque, or without either, so soon as, &c.

3.) Some are used for reckoning; as primum first, deinde next or secondly, tum next or thirdly, præterea moreover, besides, fourthly &c.: so we may use in order postea, porro, insuper, and place at the end denique, postremo lastly: we may also repeat tum and deinde: semel once, bis twice, ter thrice, quater four times, quinquies five times, sexies six times, septies seven times, octies, novies, decies, vicies, tricies, centies, millies &c. To these are added sæpe and crebro (properly Ab.) often, plerumque mostly, raro (properly Ab.) seldom, aliquoties some

times, toties so often, quoties how often, iterum a second time, rursus again &c.

4.) Some are used in questions; as quomodo how? properly two words, quo from quis, and modo, in what manner? qui how? as, qui fit how comes it: ubi where? ubinam where then? unde whence? quando when? quamdiu how long? quo whither? cur, quare, wherefore? (the latter is two words, qua re.) Num and an are particularly thus used: e. g. num me amas, or an me amas? dost thou love me? and indirectly, nescio an me ames I know not whether thou love me: thus utrum is used with an in a question about two opposite things; as utrum me amas an odisti? dost thou love or hate me? and indirectly, nescio utrum me ames an oderis, I know not whether thou love or hate me. We may also use ne in interrogations; as amasne dost thou love? or with an following; as, amasne an odisti? dost thou love or hate?

5.) Some are used in comparisons; as ut or uti, sicut or sicuti, velut or veluti, quemadmodum (properly three words, quem ad modum), as: tanquam, quasi, as if: perinde (for which proinde also is used), æque, even so, as well; which ac or atque, as, often follows: e.g. amo te æque ac fratrem, I love thee as well as thy brother: tam so; as, tam dives so rich: quam how or as, quam pulcher how beautiful. Quam also often follows tam; as, tam dives quam Croesus, as rich as Croesus magis more, minus less.

6.) Some express affirmation; as næ verily, utique certainly, profecto in fact, vere in truth, truly, verissime most truly, sane surely, certo or certe certainly, haud dubie doubtless. To these belong the oaths of the ancients; as mehercle or Hercle, Mecastor, Pol, Edepol, mediusfidius &c.

7.) Some express uncertainty or bare probability; as forsan, forsitan, fortassis, fortasse, perhaps.

8.) Some express negation; as non, haud, not: minime not at all: nedum not to say: e. g. Nescit legere, nedum scribere, he cannot read, not to say write.

9.) Some exaggerate what precedes; as potius rather, imo on the contrary, yea rather, quin yea rather.

10.) Some denote the exclusion of other things; as solum, modo, tantum, tantummodo, duntaxat, only.

11.) Some express the kind and manner; as bene well, melius better, optime very well, best: pulchre beautifully, pulchrius more beautifully, pulcherrime most beautifully: audacter, audacius, audacissime; prudenter prudently, sapienter wisely, diligenter diligently, carefully; studiose eagerly, recte rightly, male badly, stulte foolishly, large largely, coram openly, clam privily, omnino wholly, altogether; docte learnedly, amice friendly, copiose plentifully, late broadly, longe far off, raptim hastily, simul together, as to time; una at once, viritim man by man, membratim by parts, celeriter, cito quickly &c.

This may suffice, for they are too numerous to be all cited and explained. Many are reckoned with them which are not adverbs; as vesperi in the evening, abl. from vesper: diu by day (in the poets), noctu by night, are abl. from the obsolete dius, noctus: merito deservedly, abl. from meritum desert, and means by desert, e. g. merito accepisti: so crebro, cito, tuto, falso, vero, imo, sero &c. are really abl. from creber &c. Age, which is translated come, agedum, and plur. agite, agitedum is the imperat. from ago, and means act: so quare, quamobrem, quomodo, are nothing else than qua re, quam ob rem, quo modo &c. Certain prepositions, as circa, circiter, contra &c., and all which are used without a case, are also included amongst adverbs.

V.) Many adverbs admit of comparison, and follow the adjectives from which they are derived. 1.) When the adjective ends in us, a, um, or er, a, um, the adverb commonly ends in e or o (though the latter are properly ablat.), e. g. doctus, a, um, docte; malus male; pulcher pulchre; certus certe and certo; tutus tuto. Yet from multus multum, parvus parum, humanus humaniter and humane. But if the adjectives be

of the third declension, the adverb commonly ends in ter; as lenis leniter, felix feliciter, sapiens sapienter &c. Yet from facilis, facile and faciliter. 2.) The comparative of the adv. ends like the neut. of the comparative of the adject.; as doctius, melius. 3.) The superlative of the adv. is formed from that of the adj. by changing us into e; as doctissimus doctissime, optimus optime. We therefore have docte doctius doctissime, male peius pessime, bene melius optime, similiter similius simillime, fortiter fortius fortissime, feliciter felicius felicissime, valde (for valide) validius validissime, facile facilius facillime, magnifice magnificentius magnificentissime &c. It is, therefore, necessary to know the comparison of adjectives in order to know that of adverbs. If the adjectives form their degrees by prefixing magis or maxime, the adverbs do the same; as egregius, magis egregius &c.: egregie, magis egregie &c.

Yet other adverbs, which are not derived from adjectives, have also degrees of comparison; as sæpe sæpius sæpissime, diu diutius diutissime, nuper nuperrime. Some have no positive; as magis maxime, ocius ocissime, potius potissimum: others no superlative; as satis satius, secus secius: so from tempori, an old abl. for tempore, in time (Cic. Sext. 37. and often in Plautus and Cato), we have temporius or temperius, Cic. ad div. 9. 16. 20. temperius fiat: so Pallad. in Febr. 2, in Mart. 4: temporius, Colum. 2. 18. 2: 8. 4. 3: Nep. in fragm.: Ovid. Met. 4. 198. Ed. Heins., where Ed. Burm. has temperius.

SECTION SEVENTH.

Of Prepositions.

Prepositions (præpositiones, more intelligibly, particulæ præpositivæ) are indeclinable words, which are set before other words, either to form a compound word (which is the cause of their name, for they are not called prepositions from governing a case), or to govern a case of the following substantive, or with both these views. They are of two kinds :

I.) Some are used only as prefixes to compound words: they govern no case, and do not constitute a separate word: they are called inseparable prepositions they are amb, com, dis, re, se, ve, ne.

1.) Amb (from the Greek aμì, round or about) as in ambio go round, ambarvalia, ambigo &c. Before consonants it becomes an; as anquiro seek about, anceps, anfractus &c.

2.) Com (cum with) means with, together, and retains m before the labials b, m, p; as combibo, commeo, compono &c. Before other consonants, m is changed into n; as confringo, coniungo, contraho, convinco: yet m, from the force of ancient usage, is often changed into the following consonant; as colligo, corruo, for conligo, conruo &c. Before a vowel or h, m

is rejected; as coalesco, coeo, coire, cooperio, cohabito, excepting comedo, comitia: sometimes co excludes the following vowel; as cogo for coago.

3.) Dis or di asunder, denotes division (though this meaning be not always perceptible); as disiicio scatter, throw asunder, dissono, divertere turn asunder, digero arrange, diligo, diiudico. We also find s changed into f; as differo, difficilis, diffiteor &c.

4.) Re back or again; as reiicio throw back, revertor turn back, repono place back. Before a vowel or h it takes d; as redamo, redeo, redigo, redoleo, for reamo, reeo &c.: redhibeo, redhostimentum &c.