PUNCTUATION.

984. PUNCTUATION treats of the points and marks now used in writing.

985. The use of these points is to mark the divisions of a sentence, in order to show the meaning more clearly, and to serve as a guide in the pauses and inflections required in reading.

986. The principal marks used for this purpose are the following: the comma (,), the semicolon (; ), the colon (:), the period (.), the note of interrogation (?), the note of exclamation (!), the dash (-), the parentheses ( ), the brackets [ ].

987. With respect to the length of the pauses indicated by these marks, no very definite rule can be given-the same point in certain kinds of composition, and in certain positions, requiring sometimes a longer and sometimes a shorter pause.

988. As a general rule, the comma marks the shortest pause; the semicolon, a pause double that of the comma; the colon, a pause double that of the semicolon; and the period, a pause. still longer than that of the colon.

COMMA.

989. The comma is generally used in those parts of a sentence in which a short pause is required, and to mark a connexion next in closeness to that which is unbroken.

SPECIAL RULES.

990. RULE 1.-In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used; as, "Hope is necessary in every condition of life."

991. RULE 2.-When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by the addition of several adjuncts, or other qualifying words, to the grammatical subject, a comma is usually inserted before the verb; as, "A steady and undivided attention to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior mind."

992. RULE 3.—In compound sentences, the clauses or members are usually sepa rated by commas; as, " Crafty men contemn studies, simple men admire them, and wise men use them." But when the clauses are short, or closely connected, the comma is not used, as, "Revelation tells us how we may attain happiness."

993. RULE 4.-Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunction expressed, do not admit a comma between them; as, "The earth and the moon are planets.".”—“ He is a wise and prudent man."—" He catches and arrests the hours." "He acts prudently and vigorously." But when the conjunction is not expressed, a comma is inserted; as, "He is a plain, honest man," except where the two adjectives qualify the noun, not separately, but together, as a compound adjective; as, "A bright-red color."

994. RULE 5.-More than two words of the same class connected by conjung tions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as, "Poetry, music, and painting, are fine arts." But when the words connected are adjectives, the last should not be separated from its noun by a comma after it; as, "David was a wise, brave, and prudent king."

995. RULE 6.-Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair; as, “Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the consequences of civil war."

996. RULE 7.-Nouns in apposition are separated by a comma, when the latter noun has several words or adjuncts connected with it; as, "Paul, the apostle of the Gentiles." But a single noun in apposition with another not separated by a comma: as, "Paul the apostle."

997. RULE 8.-The nominative independent, and the nominative absolute (768), with the words dependent on them, are separated by commas from the rest of the sentence; as, "My son, hear the instruction of thy father."-" I am, sir, your obedient servant."—" The time of youth being precious, we should devote it to improve ment.'" To confess the truth, I was in fault.”

998. RULE 9.-Comparative and antithetical clauses are separated by a comma; thus," As the hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." "Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull." But when the comparison is short, and the connexion intimate, the comma is not used; as "Wisdom is better than rubies."

999. RULE 10.—The adverbs nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, &c., when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sentence, should be separated from the context by a comma; as, "Nay, but we will serve the Lord." So also, as and thus, introducing an example or quotation; as, &c.

1000. RULE 11.-A relative with its clause, explanatory of its antecedent, is usually separated from the rest of a sentence; as, "He who disregards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or, "He must be utterly abandoned, who disregards," &c. But when the relative, with its clause, is restrictive (267-2), and the connexion so close, that it can not be separated, the comma is not used; as, "Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make."

1001. RULE 12.-That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by another clause, has a comma before it; as, "Be virtuous, that you may be happy."

1002. RULE 13.-When a verb is understood, a comma must be inserted; as, "Reading makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; and writing, an exact man."

1003. RULE 14.-Words repeated are separated by a comma; as, "Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Aimighty."."-" No, no, no, it can not be."

1004. RULE 15.-Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more words out of their regular connexion, often require a comma; as, "To God, all things are possi. ble." Not inverted, it would be, "All things are possible to God."-" His delight was, to assist the distressed." In the natural order, "To assist the distressed was his delight."

1005. RULE 16.-A short expression, in the manner of a quotation, is separated by commas; as, "Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also the verbs say, reply, and the like, with their dependent words introducing a quotation or remark, are usually separated by commas; as, The book of nature, said he, is open before thee.""-"I say unto all, watch."

1006. RULE 17.-Adjectives, participles, adverbs, infinitives, &c., when soparated from the word on which they depend, or, when accompanied by several adjuncts, commonly require commas to be inserted; as, "His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspicuous."-" To conclude, I can only say this."-"We must not, however, neglect our duty."

SEMICOLON.

1007. The semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence, which are less closely connected than those which are separated by a comma, and more closely than those which are separated by the colon.

GENERAL RULE.

1008. The parts of a sentence separated by the semicolon, should contain in themselves a complete and independent proposition, but still having a connexion with the other parts.

SPECIAL RULES.

1009. RULE 1.-When the first division of a sentence contains a complete proposition, but is followed by a clause added as an inference or reason, or to give some explanation, the part thus added must be separated by a semicolon; as, " Perform your duty faithfully; for this will procure you the blessing of Heaven."-" The orator makes the truth plain to his hearers; he awakens them; he excites them to action; he shows them their impending danger."-"Be at peace with many; nevertheless, have but few counsellors."

1010. RULE 2.-When several short sentences, complete in themselves, but having a slight connexion in idea, follow in succession, they should be separated by a semicolon; as, "The epic poem recites the exploits of a hero; tragedy represents a disastrous event; comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind; pastoral poetry describes rural life; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the heart."

1011. RULE 3.-When a sentence consists of several members, and these members are complex, and subdivided by commas, the larger divisions of the sentence are sometimes separated by a semicolon; as, “As the desire of approbation, when it works according to reason. improves the amiable part of our species in every thing that is laudable; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by vanity and folly."

1012. RULE 4.-When a general term has several others, as particulars, in appo sition under it, the general term is separated from the particulars by a semicolon, and the particulars, from each other by commas; as, " Adjective pronouns are divided into four classes; possessive, demonstrative, distributive, and indefinite." But if the word namely be introduced, the separation is made by a comma only.

COLON.

1013. The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon but not so independent as to require a period.

SPECIAL RULES.

1014. RULE 1.-A colon is used when a sentence is complete in itself, in both sense and construction, but is followed by some additional remark or illustration, depending upon it in sense, though not in Syntax; as, "A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass: in a few years he has all the endowments of which he is capable."-" Study to acquire a habit of thinking: nothing is more important."

1015. RULE 2.-When several short sentences follow in succession, each containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a common dependence on some subsequent clause; these sentences are separated from the subsequent clause by a colon, and from each other by a semicolon; as, "That Nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has inexhaustible resources in reserve; that knowledge will always be progressive; and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries: these are among the assertions of philosophers."

1016. RULE 3.-Either a colon or semicolon may be used when an example, a quotation, or a speech, is introduced; as, "Always remember this ancient maxim; 'Know thyself.' "-"The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the Deity in these words: 'God is love.'

1017. RULE 4.-The insertion or omission of a conjunction before the concluding member of a sentence, frequently determines the use of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expressed before the concluding member, which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the colon is used; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon; as, Apply yourself to learning: it will redound to your honor."-"Apply yourself to learning; for it will redound to your honór."

PERIOD.

1018. Sentences which are complete in sense, and not connected in either meaning or grammatical construction, are separated by a period; thus, Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward

all men."

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1019. But when short sentences are connected in meaning, but not in construction, they are separated by a semicolon (1010).

1020. Long sentences, if complete, even though grammatically connected by conjunctions, often insert a period (563); thus, "He who lifts up himself to the notice and observation of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly inspect him in every part."

1021. A period must be used at the end of all books, chapters, sections, &c.; also after all abbreviations; as, A. D., M. A., Art. II., Obs. 3., J. Smith, &c.

INTERROGATION.

1022. A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the mark of interroga tion as equal to a period.

1023. The interrogation is always put at the end of a direct question; as, "What is truth?" But the indirect question does not require the interrogation; as, "Pilate inquired what is truth."

NOTE.-Printers are generally the best punctuators, as they follow a uniform

system. It is, therefore, for the most part, best, in preparing matter for the press, to leave this matter to them, except where the meaning intended may not be clearly perceived without the punctuation.

OTHER CHARACTERS USED IN WRITING.

1024. The Dash (—) is used where the sentence breaks off abruptly; also, to denote a significant pause-an unexpected turn in the sentiment-or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition.

1025. The Exclamation (!) is used after expressions of sudden emotion of any kind; also, in invocations or addresses; as, "Eternity! thou pleasing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it, or after the next word; as, "Oh! that he would come." But when O is used, the point is placed after some intervening words; as, "O my friends!"

1026. Parentheses () include a clause inserted in the body of a sentence, in order to convey some useful or necessary information or remark, but which may be omitted without injuring the construction of the sentence; as, "Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth." In reading, the parenthetic part is distinguished by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is short, and accords with the general tenor of the sentence, commas are now generally used instead of parentheses, as

"Thou sluggish power, if power thou be,
All destitute of energy."

The use of parentheses should be avoided as much as possible.

1027. Brackets [] are properly used to enclose a word or phrase interpolated for the purpose of explanation, correction, or supplying a deficiency in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to the original composition; thus, It is said, "The wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty."

1028. The Apostrophe (') is used when a letter or letters are omitted; as, e'er for ever, tho' for though; or to mark the possessive case.

1029. Quotation marks (" ") are put at the beginning and end of a passage quoted from an author in his own words, or to mark a passage regarded as a quotation.

1030. The Hyphen (-) is used to connect compound words which are not permanent compounds, as, lap-dog; also at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word not completed is at the beginning of the next line.

1031. Section (§) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions.

1032. Paragraph (¶) was formerly used to denote the beginning of a new paragraph.

1033. The Brace (~~) is used to connect words which have one common term, or three lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet.

1034. Ellipsis ( -) is used when some letters are omitted; as, K-g for King. Several asterisks are sometimes used for the same purpose; as, K✩✩g. 1035. The Caret (A) is used to show that some word is either omitted or interlined.

1036. The Index () is used to point out anything remarkable.

1037. The vowel-marks are: The Diaresis ("), on the last of two concurrent