ascertain what those laws are, and to state them for the information of others; so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the laws of language, for language is before grammar, but to observe and note those principles, and forms, and modes of speech, by which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules for the guidance and assistance of others. It is obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid down by the grammarian must conform, is THE BEST USAGE.

1134. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be decided is, "Is it according to the best usage?" On this subject, however, it has been made a question, "What is the best usage?" The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just, and comprehensive of this whole subject.

THE LAW OF LANGUAGE.

1135. The USAGE which gives law to language, in order to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be in the first place reputable, by which is meant, not the usage of the court, nor great men, nor merely scientific men; but of those whose works are esteemed by the public, and who may therefore be de nominated reputable authors.

1136. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not be confined to this or that province or district. Those," to use Campbell's apposite similitude. "who deviate from the beaten road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel in it; yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there may not be found in any one of these tracks so many as travel in the king's highway."

1137. Thirdly, this usage must be present. It is difficult to fix with any precision what usage may in all cases be deemed present. It is perhaps in this respect different with different compositions. In general, words and forms of speech, which have been long disused, should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a fashion in language as there is in dress. W him, vanity, and affectation, delight in creating new words, and using new forms of phraseology. Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be received.

1138. The usage, then, which gives law to language, and which is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, national, and present. It happens, however, that "good usage" is not always uniform in her decisions, and that in un. questionable authorities are found far different modes of expression. In such cases, the following CANONS, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the preference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words of the author :-

1139. CANON 1.-When the usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, the expression which is strictly univocal should be preferred.

11.40. CANON 2.-In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded. 1141. CANON 3.-When expressions are in other respects equal, that should be preferred which is most agreeable to the ear.

1142. CANON 4.-When none of the preceding rules takes place, regard should be had to simplicity.

1143. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justified which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that every phraseology sanc tioned by usage should be retained. In many such cases, custom may properly be checked by criticism, whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any word or phraseology which may be either unnecessary or contrary to analogy, but also to extrude whatever is reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her prerogative, that languages are gradually refined and improved. In exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade, instantly, any phraseology which she may deem objectionable; but she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in such cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down by the same author :

1144. RULE 1.—All words and phrases, particularly harsh and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed.

1145. RULE 2.—When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission.

1146. RULE 3.-When words become obsolete, or are never used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style an air of vulgarity and cant, when this general disuse renders them obscure.

1147. RULE 4.-—All words and phrases which, analyzed grammatically, include a solecism, should be dismissed.

1148. RULE 5.-All. expressions which, according to the established rules of language, either have no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or, according to the fair construction of the words, convey a meaning different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed.

1149. In order to write any language with grammatical purity, three things are required:

1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of this rule is called a barbarism.

2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules of syntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a solecism.

3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has annexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety.

1150. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The solecism is au offence against the rules of syntax; and the impropriety is an offence against lexicography, by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases.

HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING.

1151. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of words, and partly upon the form and structure of sentences.

I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be observed are purity, propriety, and precision.

PURITY.

1152. Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the practice of good writers and speakers.

1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression; as, "Fraicheur," "politesse”— "He repents him of his folly."

2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words; as, albeit, aforetime, inspectator, judgmatical.

PROPRIETY.

1153. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted to express our meaning.

1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, "To get into a scrape." 2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical; as, "The celestial orbs."

"This morn".

3. Avoid technical terms, unless you write to those who perfectly understand them.

4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses; as, "The king communicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it to the secretary, who made it known to the public."-"His own reason might have suggested better reasons."

5. Supply words that are wanting, and necessary to complete the sense. Thus, instead of "This action increased his former services," say, "This action increased the merit of his former services."

6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His memory shall be lost on the earth."

7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, “I have an opaque idea of what you mean.'

PRECISION.

1154. Precision rejects superfluous words.

1. Avoid tautology; as, "His faithfulness and fidelity were unequalled. ' 2. Observe the exact meaning of words accounted synonymous. Thus, instead of "Though his actions and intentions were good, he lost his character," say, "He lost his reputation."

II. With respect to sentences, clearness, unity, strength and a proper application of the figures of speech, are necessary.

CLEARNESS.

1155. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words.

1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and in such a situation as the sense requires.

2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided.

3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which they stand.

UNITY.

1156. Unity retains one predominant object through a sentence, or a series of

clauses.

1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no immediate connexion. 2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most prominent, and the leading nominative should, if possible, be the subject of every clause. 3. Avoid the introduction of parentheses, except when a lively remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes before.

STRENGTH.

1157. Strength gives to every word and every member its due importance. 1. Avoid tautology, and reject all superfluous words and members. In the following sentence, the word printed in italics should be omitted: "Being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained submission."

2. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression.

3. A weaker assertion should not follow a stronger: and, when he sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one.

4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some resemblance in the language and construction should be preserved.

5. A sentence should not be concluded with a preposition, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, unless it be emphatic.

1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said.

2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natura., not remote cr foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far.

3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together.

4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be preserved througnout, and different figures never jumbled together.

TRANSPOSITION.

1159. As a preparatory step to the important business of composition, the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may be exercised with great advantage upon the transposition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in how many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be expressed. This will give him a command of language, and prove, at the same time, a source of considerable mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely new turn to an expression, before a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous. 1160. There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of expressing a thought may be varied :

1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active verb, as, "The sun dissolves the snow"-" The snow is dissolved by the sun."

2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the order in which the words stand in the sentence; as, "Competence may be acquired by industry" "By industry competence may be acquired."

3. By changing an affirmative into a negative, or a negative into an affirmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, " Virtue promotes happiness"-" Virtue doee not promote misery."

4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words employed to express any sentiment; as, "Diligence and application are the best means of improvement"Nothing promotes improvement like diligence and application."

EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION.

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be done with safety. A good man las respect to the feelings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is noble; silently to suffer for it is heroic.

EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION.

The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state evidently declined. The Roman state, in proportion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined.

EXERCISES ON VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to be moved by false glory than not to be moved at all. I shall attend the meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves in modesty as he improves in knowledge, has an undoubted claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability.

EXAMPLE OF VARIETY OF EXPRESSION.

His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sister's conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode of acting was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less entitled to praise than that of his sister, &c.

1161. Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list of words, with direc tions to form from them such sentences as shall contain these words.

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one or more of the following words :-Contentment, behavior, consideration, elevation, distance, appli. cation, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, &c.

LETTERS.

1162. One of the simplest and yet most useful species of composition is letterwriting. This species of composition may be practised either by way of real correspondence between those pursuing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to imaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adapted to composition of this latter kind:

Letter 1.-Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the object of your writ ing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an account of some of the alterations which have been lately made, or are now making, in your neighborhood and conclude by expressing your desire either to see him or hear from him soon.