380. The POTENTIAL mood declares, not the fact expressed by the verb, but only its possibility, or the liberty, power, will, or obligation, of the subject with respect to it; as, The wind may blow"-" We may walk”—“I can swim". "He would not stay”. "Children should obe their parents."

In other words, the potential mood expresses, not what the subject does, or is, &c., but what it may, can, must, might, could, would, or should do or be, &c.

381. The auxiliaries may, can, &c., in the potential mood, in all probability, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, followed by the verb in the infini tive, without the sign to before it, as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, &c. (877). Grammarians now generally combine them as one word, constituting a particular form of the verb, to which they have given the name of potential mood, from its leading use. The indicative and potential both declare, but they declare different things: the former declares what the subject does, or is ; the latter what it may or can, &c., do or be. The declaration made by the indicative is simple; that made by the potential is always complex, containing the idea of liberty, power, &c., in connexion with the act. "He writes," is the indicative of the verb to write. "He can write," is the indicative of the verb can, with the infinitive of to write; or, combined, the potential of the verb to write.

382. Both the indicative and the potential mood are used interrogatively; as, "Does he love?"-" Can he write?" They are also used without dependence on another verb, and express a complete idea in themselves. "James writes a letter," and "James can write a letter," are equally complete and independent

sentences.

383. The SUBJUNCTIVE mood represents the fact expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as conditional, desirable, or contingent; as, "If he study, he will improve." -“ O that thou wert as my brother!"

384. This mood, as its name implies, is always subjoined to, and dependent on, another verb expressed or understood. "If he study, he will improve."—“ O [I wish] that thou wert," &c.

385. The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the present tense only; in the verb to be, in the present and past.

386. Both the indicative and potential, with a conjunctive particle prefixed, are used subjunctively; that is, they are used to express what is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on another verb; as, "If he sleeps, he will do well". -"He would go if he could" (go).

387. In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood, which has the subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is used subjunctively, it should be so stated.

888. The conditionality or contingency, &c., expressed by this mood, is usually

intimated by such conjunctions as if, though, lest, unless, so,&c., prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb.

389. The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nominative; as, Had 1," for “If I had”—“ Were he,” for “ If he were”—“ Had he gone,” for “If he had gone,' Would he but reform," for "If he would but reform," &c.

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390. Most grammarians consider the subjunctive present only as an abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and that the supplement may always be made; thus, "If he study," &c., that is, "if he shall (or should) study," &c. Though he [should] come," &c. This view is plausible, and may apply to the present tense of the subjunctive in most cases; but it will not apply to the past subjunctive of the verb to be, either as a principal or an auxiliary. For though we might say, "If I should be," for "If I be," yet we can not say, "If I should were;" and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form seems to be indispensable; as, "See thou do it not"-" If he do but try, he will succeed:" still391. The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling greatly into dis

use.

The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only when it has a future reference; as, "If he come [viz., at a future time], he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by saying, "If he comes” (406), "If he shall come"-or "If he should come"—and one or other of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present subjunctive was used, whether it had a future reference or not; as 'Though God be high, yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions, according to present usage, the present indicative would be used; thus, "Though God is high," &c.

392. The IMPERATIVE mood commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits; as, "Do this"-" Remember thy Creator"— "Hear, O my people"-" Go thy way for this time" (596).

393. The INFINITIVE mood expresses the meaning of the verb in a general manner, without any distinction of person or number; as, to love.

394. The infinitive is often used as a verbal noun in the nominative case, as the subject of a verb; as, "To play is pleasant." Or, in the objective, as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition; as, "Boys love to play"—" He is about to go," -"What went ye out for to see?”

395. The infinitive mood generally has no subject; yet the act, being, or state, expressed by it, is referable to some word connected with it. Thus, in the above examples, to play is referable to boys; to go is the act of he, &c.-(App. to 314.) 396. But when the infinitive as a subject has its own subject, it is in the objective case, , introduced by for; as, " For us to lie, is base." But when the infinitive with its subject is the object of a transitive verb, that subject in the objective case needs no connecting word; as, "We believe him to be sincere." Here, him is the

subject of to be, and the whole clause "him to be sincere"="that he is sincere " is the object of belief (872).

397. The infinitive active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other languages, is sometimes used in a passive sense; as. "You are to blame" (to be blamed)-"“ A house to let"—" A road to make”—" Goods made to sell”—“ Knives to grind," &o

TENSES.

398. TENSES are certain forms of the verb, which serve to point out the distinctions of time.

399. Time is naturally divided into the past, the present, and the future. The past includes all that goes before the present; the future includes all that comes after the present; and the present, strictly speaking, is the point in which the past and future meet, and which has. itself, no space or continuance. In grammar, however, the present is not regarded in this strict sense, but as extending to a greater or less period of which the passing instaut forms a part; as, this moment, hour, day, week, &c. In each of these, an act, &c., may be expressed, either simply and indefinitely as present, or definitely as completed; and these are expressed by different forms of the verb called tenses. Hence

400. The tenses in English are six-the Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, the Past-perfect, the Future, and the Future-perfect.

401. Of these, the present and the past only, in the indicative mood, and the present in the subjunctive, are simple tenses, consisting of the verb only; as, "I love"-"I loved." All the rest are compound, consisting of the auxiliary and the verb; as, "I have loved."

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.

402. The PRESENT tense expresses what is going on at the present time; as, I love"-"I am loved."

403. This tense is used also to express what is habitual, or always true; as, “He goes to church"-" Virtue is its own reward"—" Vice produces misery."

404. It is used, in animated narration, to express past events with force and interest, as if they were present; as, "Cæsar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy.'

405. It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense, in speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to their works which still exist, as "Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abraham”—“ Virgil imitates Homer:" instead of "has told," "has imitated."

406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when before, if, as soon as, after, till, and also after relative pronouns, to express the relative time of a future action, that is, of an action future at the time of speaking, but which will be

present at the time referred to; as, " When he comes, he will be welcome". "We shall get our letters as soon as the post arrives"-" He will kill every one [whom] he meets," &c.

"No longer mourn for me when I am dead."-Shaks.

407. The PRESENT-PERFECT tense represents an action or event as completed at the present time, or in a period of which the present forms a part; as, "I have sold my horse"-"I have walked six miles to-day"—" John has been busy this week"-" Many good books have been published this century."

408. The sign of the present-perfect is have-inflected, hast, has, or hath.

409. In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ago the act referred to may have been performed, if it was in a period reaching to and embracing the present, or a part of which is not yet past; as, "Many discoveries in the arts have been made since the days of Bacon" (that is, in the period reaching from that time to the pres ent). On the other hand, if the time of an act mentioned is past, and does not include the present, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. Thus, we can not properly say, "I have seen your friend a moment ago;' but, "I saw your friend," &c.

410. This tense is used to express an act or state continued through a period of time reaching to the present; as, "He has studied grammar six months"-"He has been absent [now] six years."

411. It is used to express acts long since completed, when the reference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and still existing; as, Cicero has written orations"-" Moses has told us many important facts in his writings""Of old thou hast laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if the reference is to the act of finishing, and not to the present continuance of the thing finished, this tense can not be used; thus, we can not say, "Cicero has written poems," because no such productions now remain. Nor, "In the beginning God has created the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a certain past time indicated by the words "In the beginning."

412. It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the futureperfect, to represent an action, &c., as perfect at a future time; as, "The cock shall till thou hast denied me thrice."

not crow,

413. Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present existence of that of which the verb expresses the completion; as, "I have been young"-meaning, this is now finished-I am young no more.

414. This tense corresponds to the Latin perfect definite.

415. The PAST tense expresses what took place in past time; as, "In the beginning God created the heavens❞— "God said, Let there be light"-"The ship sailed when he mail arrived."

416. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past, and, however near to the present, it does not embrace it; as, "I saw your friend a moment ago❞— "I wrote yesterday."

417. In such expressions as "I wrote this morning"'—" this week"-" this year," &c., the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in these yet unfinished periods.

418. This tense is used to express what was customary in past time; as, "She altended church regularly all her life."

419. The PAST-PERFECT tense represents an action or event as completed at or before a certain past time; as, "I had walked six miles that day"-" John had been busy that week"-" The ship had sailed when the mail arrived" —that is, the ship sailed before the mail arrived.

420. The sign of the past-perfect is had; second person, hadst. This tense corresponds to the Latin pluperfect.

421. The FUTURE tense expresses what will take place in future time; as, "I will see you again, and your hearts shall rejoice'

422. The signs of the future are shall, will.

423. The FUTURE-PERFECT tense intimates that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future; as, "I shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock" "He will have finished his letter before you are ready."

424. The signs of the future-perfect are shall have, will have.

425. The Potential mood has four tenses-the Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, and the Past-perfect.

426. The Present potential expresses present liberty, power, or obligation.

427. The signs of the Present are, may, can, must.

428. The Present-perfect, in this mood, does not correspond in meaning to the same tense in the indicative, but more properly expresses present possibility, liberty, necessity, &c., with respect to an act or state supposed to be past; thus, "He may have written," means, It is possible that he wrote, or has written; "He must have written " means, It must be that he wrote or has written.

429. The signs of the Present-perfect potential are, may have, can have, must have,