The logical predicate is is attentively examined. The grammatical subject is it. The grammatical predicate is is examined. It is modified by the adverb of manner, attentively. In the second dependent clause The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. The logical predicate is was created by which. The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the adjunct, by which, referring to hand, its antecedent. The preceding process of analysis, which takes up so much room on paper, may be accomplished orally with great rapidity. Let this be done in the following— EXERCISES. In the same way, analyze the following sentences: Knowledge is power. Truth is the basis of honor: It is the beginning of virtue: It liveth and conquereth for ever. Time is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. The heart and the tongue are the best and the worst parts of man. Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable to the mind. He who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive. True religion gives order and beauty to the world, and, after life, a better existence. A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a greater brings us back to it again. What we know is nothing, but what we are ignorant of is immense. Cold water is a warm friend, and strong water is a powerful enemy to mankind. Many men have been obscure in their origin and birth, but great and glorious in life and death. To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great perfections of conversation. Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inventions which save the labor of working, are in universal demand. Solon compared the people to the sea, and orators and counsellors to the winds; for (he said) that the sea would be calm and quiet if the winds did not trouble it. Some cultivate philosophy in theory, who are imperfect philosophers in practice; as others advocate religion, who are nevertheless indifferently religious. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 660. WORDS are arranged in sentences, according to certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax. 661. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its nominative (or subject), expressed or understood. 2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must have a substantive (109), expressed or understood. 3. Every nominative or subject has its own verb, expressed or understood. 4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infinitive or participles) has its own nominative, expressed or understood. 5. Every possessive case is governed by a noun or substantive whose signification it serves to limit. 6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the active voice, or a preposition, or denotes circumstances of time, value, weight, or measure (828). 7. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, adjective, or noun. The exceptions to these general principles will appear in the Rules of Syntax. PARTS OF SYNTAX. 662. The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to three heads, viz., Concord, or agreement, Government, and Posi tion. 663. CONCORD is the agreement which one word has with another in gender, number, case, or person. 664. GOVERNMENT is the power which one word has in determining the mood, tense, or case, of another word. The word governed by another word is called its regimen. 665. POSITION means the place which a word occupies in relation to other words in a sentence. 666. In the English language, which has but few inflections, the meaning of a sentence often depends much on the position of the words of which it consists. SUBSTANTIVES IN APPOSITION. 667. RULE I.-Substantives, denoting the same person or thing, agree in case; as— "Cicero the orator."- "I Paul have written it."-" We, the people of the United States."."—" Ye woods and wilds."-"This was said to us men.”—“ The river Thames.”—“Jane and Eliza, Mary's cousins."—"The chief of the princes, he who defied the enemy," &c. --"That was related of Dr. West, him who translated Pindar." 668. The word annexed is said to be in apposition with the other, and is added to express some attribute, description, or appellation, belonging to it. The words so related must always be in the same member of the sentence-that is, both in the subject, or both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another is not in apposition with it, though denoting the same thing. The substantive in apposition commonly stands last; sometimes first. 669. Two or more words forming one complex name, or a name and a title prefixed, though really in apposition, are properly inflected and parsed as one word; as, "George Washington"—" General Washington's tent." In such cases, the sign of the possessive is annexed only to the last (848), and sometimes also in other cases; as, "We arrived at our friend Wilson's plantation." For the plural of proper names with titles prefixed, see (161). 670. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence, and a sentence or infinitive mood sometimes in apposition with a noun; as, "The weather forbids walking, a prohibition hurtful to us both."-" The promise, that he should be the heir of the world, was given to Abraham."-" Delightful task, to rear the tender thought!" (867). 671. A plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or more substantives singular, to combine and give them emphasis; as, "Time, labor, money, all were lost." Sometimes the same substantive is repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, "Cisterns, broken cisterns." 672. Distributive words are sometimes put in apposition with a plural substantive; as, "They went each of them on his 9_64 way. They all went, some one way, and some another." In the construction of a sentence, the distributive word is sometimes omitted; as, "They [interrogative pronouns] do not relate [each] to a preceding noun.” 673. Of this character are such expressions as the following: "They stood in each other's way"-that is, they stood each in the other's way." They love one another"—that is, they love, one (loves) an other (311). 674. A substantive is sometimes connected with another in a sort of apposition by the word as, meaning in the condition of, in the capacity of; thus, “Cicero, as an orator, was bold-as a soldier, he was timid." But here-the reverse of the former case (669)—the substantive in apposition with another in the possessive case, or with a possessive pronoun, is without the sign, while the other has it; as, "JOHN'S reputation as an author was great-His fame as an artist still greater." 675 In designating time and place, instead of a noun in apposition, a preposition with its case is often used; as, "The month of August."-" The state of Ohio.""The city of New York." Throughout the exercises in syntax-first, correct the errors; secondly, analyze orally the sentences so corrected; thirdly, parse any word etymologically; and last, parse syntactically the word or words to which the rule refers. EXERCISES. In the following sentences, what words are in apposition, and to what? In what case do they agree? Give the rule: Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity. Byron the poet, the only son of Captain John Byron, was born in 1788. Colcridge, a remarkable man, and rich imaginative poet, was the friend of Wordsworth. My brother William's estate has been sold. "And on the palace floor, a lifeless corse she lay." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. As the nominative and the objective case in nouns are alike in English, there is no liability to error under this rule, except in the case of pronouns. Please give that book to my brother William, he who stands by the window. The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned before. Do you speak so to me, I who have so often befriended you? I speak of Virgil, he who wrote the Æneid. AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 676. RULE II.-1. An adjective or participle qualifies the substantive to which it belongs; as, "A good man." 2. Adjectives denoting ONE, qualify nouns in the singular: adjectives denoting MORE THAN ONE, qualify nouns in the plural; as, "This man.". "These men.". '-"Six feet." 677. Adjectives denoting one are the ordinals first, second, third, &c. (206), last—this, that—one, each, every, either, neither, much, and its comparative more-all, denoting quantity, enough, whole. 678. When any of these is joined with a plural noun, the whole is regarded as one aggregate; as, "The first two weeks"—" Every ten miles"—"The last four lines"-"The last days of summer," &c. But the verb after such subjects is usually plural. 679. In such expressions, the cardinal number, if small, may precede the words and last, but not the other ordinals; as, "The two first weeks"-" The four nes" (705–3), meaning the two weeks at the beginning, or preceding all the -the four lines at the end, or succeeding all the rest. ). Two or more adjectives, expressing qualities that belong each to a different t of the same name, and that name expressed only with the last, should have rticle before each; as, "The red and the white rose"-that is, two roses, the red and the other white. So "The first and the second page"'-"The first and the second verse"-"The Old and the New World." It has become common, however, even with good writers, to drop the second article, and change the singular into the plural, to express the same idea; thus, "The first and second pages" -"The first and second verses," &c. This mode of expression, though incorrect in itself, is less stiff and formal than the other. (See App. VII.) When adjectives denoting one are connected by or, nor, &c., the noun must be singular. 681. Adjectives denoting more than one, are all cardinal numbers above one; as, two, three, &c.—few, many, with its comparative more—all, denoting number, both, several, and enow. This last is nearly obsolete. 682. Adjectives without a substantive expressed are often used as nouns; as, "The rich and the poor meet together" (201). This is especially common with all adjective pronouns except the possessive; as, "Of books, some are good, some are bad."-"All things come alike to all" (289). 683. Adjectives are sometimes used indefinitely after an infinitive or participle, without reference to any particular substantive, to express an abstract idea; as. To be good is to be happy."-" Being good is better than being great.” 684. When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify its substantive in the subject; as, "God is good, he is also just”—“ To do good to others is profitable to ourselves."-" That men should lie, is base." 685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, not considered simply as a substantive, but as a substantive affected by the action of the connecting verb, which, in that case, may be regarded as a strengthened or modified copula ; as, "That type stands low."-". This fruit tastes bitter."-" The wind blows cold." --"The door is painted green."—" John grows tall."—" Milk turns sour.”—“ "Clay burns white."-"Down feels soft." 686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly, called adverbial adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used improperly instead of the adjective in such expressions, the distinction should be carefully marked. Thus The adverb expresses the manner of the act. The adjective expresses the condition, or state of the subject. Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corresponding adjunct, the adverb should be used; as, "The stream flows rapidly" (in a rapid manner). Here the adverb rapidly modifies the verb flows. But when the meaning can be expressed nearly by substituting the verb to be or to become as a copula, the adjective should be used; as, "The stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is further illustrated by the following examples, viz.: ADJECTIVES. John grows [becomes] old. She looks [is] cold. He feels [is] warm. ADVERBS. John grows rapidly [in a rapid manner]. |