better to be a king and die, than to live and be a prince." This should never be done when either harshness or obscurity would be the result.

881. To, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used for the infinitive itself. Thus, "I have not written, and I do not intend to," is a colloquial vulgarism for, "I have not written, and I do not intend to write."

66

882. RULE 6.—The infinitive is used to express the PURPOSE, END, or DESIGN of the preceding act; as, Some who came to scoff, remained to pray." Here, to scoff, and to pray are not governed by came and remained; but are put, without a governing word, to express the end for which they came and remained.

883. This construction of the infinitive is sometimes preceded by the phrase, “in order;" and formerly was preceded by for; as, "What went ye out for to see?"

This is now obsolete.

SS4. RULE 7.-In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after so AS, TOO, or THAN; as, "Be so good as to read this

letter"-" -"Too old to learn”- -"Wiser than to undertake it." Some consider this construction as elliptical, and that the infinitive depends on a word understood.

885. The infinitive is sometimes used to assign, in an abridged form, the reason of that which goes before, as, “ Base coward that thou art! to flee!" "Ungrateful man! to waste my fortune, rob me of my peace," &c.-" Must not one sigh, to reflect on so grave a subject."

886. The infinitive is sometimes put absolutely, without a governing word; as, "To say the truth, I was in fault."

887. The infinitive is sometimes omitted; as, “I consider him [to be] an honest

man.

888. The verb have, followed by the infinitive, sometimes expresses obligation or necessity; as, "We have to do it," that is, "We must do it."

889. The infinitive, in these several constructions, in parsing, may be briefly stated thus: "The infinitive as the subject of "-" as the object of- "-" as the predicate-nominative after— —”—“ The infinitive of purpose-comparison—cause -used absolutely."

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.

There is but little liability to err in the use of this mood, except in its tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign to. When there is no rule to authorize the omission, it should be inserted.

(865) Strive learn. They obliged him do it. You ought not walk so fast.-(869) It is better live on a little than outlive a great deal. It is better to be a king and die than live and be a prince. -(870) He scorns either to temporize, or deceive, or be guilty of

evasion.

(877) You need not to be so serious. I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. He bid me to go home. The boys were all let to go at once. Let no man to think too highly of himself. They all heard him to say it. He was heard say it by everybody. Some one saw them to pass the house. were seen pass the house. I have observed some satirists to use the term Dare be wise. They were bid come into the house.—(881) Be sure to write yourself, and tell him to. And live as God designed

me to.

They

Point out the use of the infinitive in the following sentences, and show how it is governed.

It too often happens that to be above the reach of want just places us within the reach of avarice. It does no good to preach generosity, or even justice, to those who have neither sense nor soul. He was born to be great. To accomplish these ends, savages resort to cunning. They thought to make themselves rich. Great desires are difficult to be gratified. Some people are difficult to please. To know ourselves, we must commence by knowing our own weaknesses. If we have not always time to read, we have always time to reflect To be or not to be? that is the question.

THE PARTICIPLES.

890. RULE XVI.-Participles have the construction of nouns, adjectives, and verbs (452, &c.)

66

891. The participle as a noun, in the nominative case, may be the subject of a verb (762), or the predicate-nominative after it (798); as, Saying is not doing." In the objective case, it may be the object of a transitive verb (802), or preposition (819); as, “Avoid doing evil."—"There is pleasure in doing good."

892. In a substantive phrase, a noun following the present or perfect participle (as well as the infinitive) of a copulative verb, is in the predicate-nominative; as, "His being an expert dancer"-"The crime of being a young man," &c. (799).

893. The participle, as an adjective, expresses an attribute of a noun or pronoun, without affirmation; as, "The sword hangs rusting on the wall."

894. The participle, while used as a noun or adjective, may be modified in all respects as the verb (630).

895. To participles used in these ways, the rules of syntax for nouns, adjectives and verbs, may of course be applied.

SPECIAL RULES.

896. RULE 1.—When the present or perfect participle is used as a noun, a noun before it is put in the possessive case (841); as, "Much depends on the pupil's composing fre quently." "His having done so is evident."

897. But a pronoun, in this construction, must be the possessive pronoun, and not the possessive case; as, "Much depends on your composing," &c.; not yours.

898. In many cases, the nominative or objective case before the present partici ple as an adjective, will express nearly the same idea. Thus, "Much will depend on the pupil's composing," and "Much will depend on the pupil composing," mean substantially the same thing. Still, the construction is different: in the first, the dependence is on the composing, in the second it is on the pupil; and though in these examples the sense is nearly the same, yet there are often examples in which the sense is entirely different. Thus, "What do you think of my horse's running to-day ?" implies he has run, and asks, “How do you think he ran?" But "What do you think of my horse running to-day?" implies he has not run, and asks. “Do you think he should run ?"

899. RULE 2.- When the present participle, used as a noun, has an ARTICLE or ADJECTIVE before it, the preposition or follows; as, By the observing of these rules."-" This was a complete forsaking of the truth.”

900. In this construction, the participle becomes simply a noun, and can not be modified as a verb. Hence we can not say, "By the observing carefully of these rules;" because carefully, being an adverb, can not modify a noun. But we can say, "By the careful observing of," &c.; because careful, being an adjective, can modify a noun. Or we can say, "By observing these rules carefully," &c.; because the and of being both removed, observing can be modified as a verb.

901. Both the article and of may be omitted, but not the one without the other. By this omission, the participle becomes a participial noun, and can be modified as the verb. Of can not be used when a preposition follows.

902. So here, again, in either of these constructions, the sense in many cases will be the same. Thus, "By the observing of these rules he became eminent," and "By observing these rules he became eminent," express the same idea. But, as in the other case, so here, there are examples in which the sense is entirely dif ferent. Thus, "He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," and "He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher," mean entirely different things. So " At the hearing of the ear, they will obey," and "A hearing the ear, they will obey." The first is sense-the last, nonsense.

In such cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the following903. RULE 3.—When the verbal noun expresses something of which the noun following is the DOER, it should have the article and the preposition; as, "It was said in the hearing of the

witness." But when it expresses something of which the noun following is not the doer, but the OBJECT, both should be omitted; as, "The court spent some time in hearing the witness." 904. RULE 4.- The past participle, and not the past tense, should be used after the auxiliaries HAVE and BE; as, "I have written" (not wrote)--" The letter is written" (not wrote).

66

905. So, also, the past participle should not be used for the past tense; as, "He ran," not run-"I saw," not seen—“ I did," not done. 906. In many verbs whose present passive expresses, not the present continuance of the act, but of the result of the act in a finished state, the present participle active has a passive as well as an active sense; and is used with the auxiliary verb to be, to express the present passive progressively; as, The house is building" (not being built). When, in such verbs, the participle in ing has not a passive senseor where the use of it in a passive sense would be ambiguous, a different form of expression should be used (456, &c.)

907. The participle is sometimes used absolutely, having no dependence on any other word; as, "Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance" (770).

EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.

In the following sentences, correct the errors, and give a reason for the change: (892) Its being me need make no difference. We could not be sure of its being him. The whole depended on its being them. (896) Man rebelling against his Maker, brought him into ruin. Joseph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled for good. God upholding all things, is an evidence of his power. He being a great man did not make him a happy man. A man being poor does not make him miserable.-(898) What do you think of my horse running to-day? Did he run well? What think you of my horse's running to-day? Will it be safe?

(899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics. By the obtaining wisdom you will command respect. By obtaining of wisdom you will command respect. This was equal to a rejecting the proposal. This was equal to rejecting of the proposal. The learning anything well requires great application. Learning of anything well requires application. Meekness is manifested in suffering of ills patiently-in the suffering ills patiently-in the suffering of ills patiently. In the patient suffering ills-in patient suffering of ills. Because of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. -(903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of sundry papers, much time was spent. The greatest pain is suffered in the cutting of the skin.

(904) He has broke his cup. I have drank enough. The tree was shook by the wind. The tree has fell. Some one has took my pen. I seen the man who done it. He has began the work. Some fell by the wayside and was trode down. The French language is spoke in every part of Europe.

The following sentences from E. Everett, Daniel Webster, Irving, N. A. Review, Cooper, Bancroft, Thomas Brown, Sir G. M'Kenzie, Butler, &c., have been changed into modern newspaper English. Restore them, according to (906): ·

The fortress was being built. The spot where this new and strange tragedy was being acted. An attempt was being made in the English parliament. The magnificent church now being erected in the city of New York. While these things were being transacted in England. While the ceremony was being performed. The court was then being held. And still be being done and never done. Wheat is being sold at a fair price. Gold is being found in great quantities. A report is now being prepared. Goods are now being sold off at first cost. While the necessary movement was being made.

CONNEXION OF TENSES.

908. RULE XVII.-In the use of verbs, and words that in point of time relate to each other, the order of time must be observed; as, "I have known him these many years"— not, “I know him these many years;" nor, "I knew him

these many years."

909. REMARK.-The particular tense necessary to be used must depend upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases. But it may be proper

to observe

910. An observation which is always true must be expressed in the present tense; as, "The stoics believed that all crimes are equal" (403).

911. The present-perfect, and not the present tense should be used in connexion with words denoting an extent of time continued to the present; thus, "They continue with me now three days," should be "have continued," &c. (407).

912. The present-perfect tense ought never to be used in connexion with words which express past time; thus, "I have formerly mentioned his attachment to study," should be "I formerly mentioned," &c.

913. To express an event simply as past, without relation to any other point of time than the present, or as taking place at a certain past time mentioned, the past tense is used; as, "God created the world."-" In the beginning, God created the world." Exercises in (912) are examples.

914. When we wish to represent an event as past at or before a certain past time referred to, the verb must be put in the past-perfect tense. Thus, when wo