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vowels, showing that they are not to be pronounced as a diphthong; the Acute accent'); the Grave (`); the Long sound (-); the Short sound (~).

1038. The marks of reference are: The Asterisk (*); the Obelisk or Dagger (t); the Double Dagger (); the Parallels (). Sometimes, also, the § and T. Also small letters or figures which refer to notes at the foot of the page.

FIGURES.

1039. A FIGURE, in grammar, is some deviation from the ordinary form, or construction, or application of words, in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression.

1040. There are three kinds of Figures; viz., of Etymology, of Syntax, and of Rhetoric. The first and the second refer to the form of words, or to their construction, the last to their application.

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.

1041. A Figure of Etymology is a departure from the usual or simple form of words, merely.

1042. Of these the most important are eight, viz.: A-phær-e-sis, Pros-the-sis, Syn-co-pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-go-ge, Di-ær-e-sis, Synær-e-sis, and Tme-sis.

1. Apharesis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of a word; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'bove, 'neath, for, against, began, above, beneath.

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word; as, adown, agoing, &c., for down, going, &c.

3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short one, from the middle of a word; as, med'cine, sp'rit, e'en, for medicine, spirit, even.

4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a word; as, tho', for though, th' for the.

5. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word; as, deary, for dear.

6. Diæresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into different syllables, usually marked thus () on the second vowel; as, coöperate, aërial.

7. Synæresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either orthography or pronunciation; as. dost, seest, for doest, seëst, or, loved, learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed.

8. Tmesis is separating the parts of a compound word by an intervening term; as," What time soever"-" On which side soever"-" To us ward."

FIGURES OF SYNTAX.

1043. A Figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual construction of words in a sentence, used for the sake of greater beauty or force.

1044. Of these, the most important are Ellipsis, Pleɔnasm, Syllepsis, Enallagé, and Hyperbaton.

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words nccessary to the full construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea intended (977). Such words are said to be understood; as, "The men, women, and children," for "The men, the women, and the children."

2. Pleonasm is the using of more words than are necessary to the full construction of a sentence, to give greater force or emphasis to the expression; as, "The boy, oh! where was he?"

3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which we conceive the tense of words otherwise than the words import, and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, we say, "He shines"-of a ship, "She sails" (130).

4. Enallagé is the use of one part of speech for another, or of one modification of a word for another; as an adjective for an adverb, thus: "They fall successive, and successive rise," for successively; the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an individual, &c. (245).

5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition; as, "Now come we to the last.”— "A man he was to all the country dear."-"He wanders earth around."

FIGURES OF RHETORIC.

1045. A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary application of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, to the composition. These figures are sometimes called tropes.

1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz. :—

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1. Personification, or prosopopæia, is that figure of speech by which we attrib ute life and action to inanimate objects; as, "The sea saw it and fled."

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2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to another; as, He shall be like a tree planted by the rivers of water."

3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c.) of comparison; as. "He shall be a tree planted by," &c.

4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine: "Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt," &c. Ps. lxxx. Of this style are Esop's Fables, Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress," &c.

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5. Vision, or imagery, is a figure by which the speaker represents past events, or the objects of his imagination, as actually present to his senses; as, "Cæsar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy."-"The combat thickens: on, ye brave!"

6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less, better or than they really are. Thus, David says of Saul and Jonathan, “They werc swifter than eagles, they were stronger than lions."

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7. Irony is a figure by which we mean quite the contrary of what we say; as, when Elijah said to the worshippers of Baal, "Cry aloud, for he is a god," &c.

8. A metonymy is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, "He reads Milton," we mean Milton's works. "Gray hairs should be respected"-that is, old age.

9. Synecdoche is the putting of a part for the whole, or the whole for a part, a definite number for an indefinite, &c.; as, the waves for the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great number. This figure nearly allied to metonymy.

10. Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which different or contrary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advantage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the courage of the righteous, when he says, "The wicked flee when no man pursueth, but the righteous are bold as a lion."

11. Climax, or amplification, is the heightening of all the circumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a strong light; as, "Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nakedness, or peril, or sword? Nay," &c. See also Rom. viii. 38, 39.

12. Exclamation is a figure that is used to express some strong emotion of the mind; as, “Oh! the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God."

13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our mind, and enliven our discourse, by proposing questions; thus, "Hath the Lord said it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not make it good?"

14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretends to conceal what he is really declaring and strongly enforcing; as, " Horatius was once a very promising young gentleman, but in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate, and ruined his constitution."

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15. Apostrophe is a turning off from the subject to address some other person ot thing; as, "Death is swallowed up in victory.”- O Death, where is thy sting?" 1047. Besides the deviations from the usual form and construction of words, noted under the figures of Etymology and Syntax, there are still others, which can not be classed under proper heads, and which, from being used mostly in poetic com. position, are commonly called

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1. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases, are often used, which would be inadmissible in prose; as

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"The whiles, the vaulted shrine around,
Seraphic wires were heard to sound."

"On the first friendly bank he throws him down."
"I'll seek the solitude he sought,

And stretch me where he lay."

"Not Hector's self should want an equal foe."

2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than in prose; as

"Suffice, to-night, these orders to obey."

"Time is our tedious song should here have ending."

"For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise?"

"'Tis Fancy, in her fiery car,

Transports me to the thickest war."

"Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."
"Bliss is the same in subject as in king,

In who obtain defence, or who defend."

3. Adjectives in poetry are often elegantly connected with nouns which they do not strictly qualify; as—

"The ploughman homeward plods his weary way."

"The tenants of the warbling shade."

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"And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."

4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. A noun and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same verb; as— "It ceased, the melancholy sound."

"My banks they are furnished with bees."

5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, the sign of the infinitive; as

"To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell;

To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes."

6. A common poetic license consists in employing or and nor instead of either and neither; as

"And first

Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea."

"Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest."

7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and adjectives used like abstract nouns; as

"The lightnings flash a larger curve."

"Still in harmonious intercourse, they lived
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart."
"Meanwhile whate'er of beautiful or new,
By chance or search, was offered to his view,
He scanned with curious eyc."

8 Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable in poetry, though inadmissible in prose; as

"He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme."

"Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold."

"There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call,

Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame

"Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed.'

.6 Never since created man

Met such embodied force."

1049. Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied to prose writers; and, among other purposes which they obviously serve, they enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by increasing the boundary of separation set up, especially in our language, between it and common prose. Were such licenses not permitted in poetry, the difficulty attendant upon this species of composition would probably be so great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous task of writing verse.

EXERCISES.

Point out, name, and define, the figures of Etymology in the following phrases and sentences:

His courage 'gan fail. Bend 'gainst the steepy hill thy breast. 'Twas mine, 'tis his. Vain tamp'ring has but fostered his disease. Enchained he lay, a monster. What way soe'er he turned, it met Th' aërial pencil forms the scene anew. Withouten trump was proclamation made.

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Point out, name, and define, the figures of Syntax in the following sentences:The law I gave to nature him forbids. So little mercy shows who needs so much. My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night. Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. Conscience pleads her cause within the breast. Knowledge is proud that he has learned so much. Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself are much condemned. Let us instant go. Them he himself to glory will advance. But apt the mind or fancy is to rove. Our land shall yield her increase. Point out, name. and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following sentences: As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. Without discipline, the favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild. Thy name is as cintment poured forth. The Lord God is a sun and shield. Tho' deep, yet clear; tho' gentle, yet profound. Their furrow oft the stubborn glebe has broke. His arm is conquest, and his frown is hate. 'Twas then his threshold first received a guest. I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted fir. At which the universal host sent up a shout that tore hell's concave.

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