becomes J after a consonant, as in abjete, consiljum, &c. which appear as trisyllables in poetry.

Obs. 8 The consonantal use of U mentioned in the rule is shown in the following examples: at the beginning of a word we have vado, venio, video, volo, vilis, vultus; in the middle of a word we have anguis, solvo, arvum; also suavis, suadeo, suesco, Suetonius. But in forms like colui, volui, conserui, the U is a vowel, because these words, as we shall see, involve fui. And there are some instances of a diaeresis or separation of vowels after S and L, as in sŭemus, silua, dissolão.

Obs. 9 The Greek Y when followed by I makes one syllable, as in Ilithyia, Harpyia, Thyios.

(4) In every syllable the vowel is considered short () or long("); it is said to be short or long by nature when it is followed by a single consonant; but it may become long by position when followed by two consonants. Diphthongs, contracted syllables, and vowels before X and Z, are always long. The rules for the quantity of syllables are given in Part III.

(5) In dividing a word at the end of a line it is most convenient to adopt the following rules:

(a) A single consonant between two vowels belongs to the second of them, as in pa-ter.

(b) Two or more consonants may be placed after the division if they can begin a Latin word; this applies to any mute followed by l or v, to g followed by n, to s followed by a tenuis, and to s followed by a tenuis and 7 or r; but if any other consonant precedes these combinations it must be placed before the division; thus we divide im-plico, pa-tris, i-gna-rus, ne-scio, a-spi-ro, a-sto, re-splen-det, con-scri-bo, a-spre-tum, de-stric-tus; but emp-tus, effluo, ax-is, ip-se, scrip-si.

(c) The final consonant of a preposition does not pass on to the first syllable of the word with which it is compounded; thus we divide ab-eo, ad-eo, prod-eo, prod-est, abs-tineo, trans-eo, praeter-eo.

(6) Although the tone or accent is not written in Latin, some one syllable of every word, except a preposition before its case, has either an acute (') or circumflex (^), according to the following rules:

(a) Monosyllables have the circumflex if the vowel is long by nature; otherwise the acute.

(b) Dissyllables have a circumflex on the first syllable if the vowel be long by nature, and the last syllable short; otherwise the acute; thus we have Rômă, Rómā, homo, léctus.

(c) Words of more than two syllables have the circumflex on the last syllable but cne (penultima), if this is long by nature, and the last syllable is short; they have the acute on the penultima if it is long by position and the last syllable is short; they have the acute on the last syllable but two (antepenultima) if the penultima is short, whether the last syllable is short or long; thus we have Românus, Metellus, moribus, carminibus, hómines.

(d) If que, ne, ve are used as enclitics, the accent falls on the last syllable of the main word; but if que is a constituent part of the word, the general rule is adopted; thus we have ítaque, 'therefore,' but itáque, and so;' similarly we have Musáque, Musáque, but úterque.

(e) If an enclitic loses its vowel or suffers apocope, as it is called, the accent remains as before; thus we have audîn, tantîn for audîsne, tantîne. The same is the case with nouns in -âs for -âtis,

(f) Compounds of facio with other words than prepositions retain the accent on the verb, as though it were uncompounded; thus we have calefácit, palamfêcit.

§ 4. Parts of Speech.

4 There are eight parts of speech, or different kinds of words; four declined, or admitting of an inflexion or change of form; and four undeclined, or uninflected. The inflexions or changes of form express the differences of case, number, and gender in the noun, and the distinctions of person, number, tense, mood, and voice in the verb. When the inflexions are removed, we say that the declinable word is in its crude or uninflected form; thus domino is the crude or uninflected form of dominu-s domino-s, domino = domino-i, and dominu-m domino-m; and mone- is the crude or uninflected form of mone-s mone-is, mone-at, and mon-ui-monefui. The uninflected form may or may not admit of further reduction to a monosyllabic form called a root; thus ped- is both the

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root and the uninflected form of pes = ped-s, a foot;' but while the same ped- is the root, tri-pud-io- is the uninflected form of tri-pudiu-m= tri-pudio-m. An uninflected form is contained in every inflected word, and the variable terminations are appended to it; but it may appear also without an inflexion, and even without a characteristic vowel. Thus, tenero- is the uninflected form of tener, which has lost its termination -us in the nom. sing. masc.

(1) The declined parts of speech are,

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(a) The noun, which is called substantive when it is the name of a person or thing, as puer, a boy,' equus, a horse,' mensa, ‘a table;' and adjective when it is the name of a quality, as bonus, 'good,' celer, 'swift.'

(b) The pronoun, which indicates a which indicates a position, and generally refers to some noun expressed or understood; as ille, that one there' (e. g. either puer or equus).

(c) The verb, which denotes an act; as discit, he learns,' currit, it runs.'

(d) The participle, which combines the meaning of a verb with the form of a noun; as discens, 'learning,' currens, 'running.'

(2) The undeclined parts of speech are,

(a) The adverb, which qualifies the verb; as discit bene, 'he learns well,' currit celeriter, 'it runs swiftly.'

(b) The preposition, which defines the relation of a noun; as cum puero, 'with a boy,' ex equo, 'from a horse.'

(c) The conjunction, which joins words and sentences; as puer et equus, 'the boy and horse.'

(d) The interjection, which expresses an exclamation; as bone puer! 'O good boy!'

(3) The rules for the change of form in declinable words are arranged according to the division of letters into vowels and consonants, and according to the division of consonants into labials, gutturals, dentals, liquids, and semi-consonants, namely, according to the nature of the letter which terminates the crude or uninflected form of the declinable word.

CHAPTER II.

NOUNS.

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§ 1. Declension of Substantives.

5 RULES of declension are rules for the formation of cases in particular nouns.

(1) There are six regular cases in the Latin noun, which are called the nominative, or case of naming,' the genitive, or case of 'sonship,' the dative, or case of 'giving,' the accusative, or case of accusing,' the vocative, or case of 'calling,' and the ablative, or case of 'removing.'

Obs. These names seem to be derived from the proceedings in a law-court; thus, the nominative, or case of 'naming,' 'names' the party, as Gaius accusat, 'Gaius accuses;' the genitive, or case of 'sonship,' says 'of whom' or 'what,' as accusatio furti, 'an accusation of theft,' filius Marci, son of Marcus;' the dative, or case of 'giving,' states to or for whom,' as mihi, 'to me;' the accusative, or case of 'accusing,' indicates the person accused, or the object of the action, as Gaius accusat Lucium, 'Gaius accuses Lucius;' the vocative, or case of 'calling,' addresses a person, as judex, 'O judge;' and the ablative, or case of 'removal,' states the place from which or the person from whom an action or thing proceeds or is taken, as ablatum a me, 'taken from me;' factum a me, done by me.' But although the names of the cases admit of this explanation, their distinctive value is best given with reference to the English prepositions, which express their meaning. Thus omitting the nominative, which is never indicated by a preposition, the other cases are defined as follows: the genitive is expressed by 'of,' and denotes possession, as magistri liber, the book of the master,' or 'the master's book,' i. e. possessed by him; the dative is expressed by 'to' or 'for,' and denotes limitation, as datum magistro, 'given to or for the master,' i.e. limited to him; the accusative is expressed by 'unto' or 'towards,' or by this meaning contained in the verb on which it depends, and denotes motion towards an object, as venit Romam, he comes unto Rome;' accusat Lucium, 'he brings an accusation unto, in the direction of, against Lucius;' verberat servum, 'he beats, bestows a beating on, directs his blows unto or towards the slave;' the ablative is expressed

by 'from' or 'by,' and denotes motion from an object or agent, as venit Roma, he came from Rome;' verberatur a me, he is beaten by me,' i.e. 'receives a beating from me.' Besides these cases, some nouns, especially names of places, have a locative, or case of position, which in form corresponds to the G. in the sing. of vowel nouns, and to the Ab. in the sing. of consonant nouns, and in the plural of all nouns; thus we have Romae, at Rome;' domi, at home;' Carthagine, 'at Carthage;' Athenis, at Athens;' but, generally, this is superfluous, as the same meaning is expressed by the ablative with in, as in domo, in the house.' The nominative is called the direct case, and all the others are termed oblique cases.

(2) There are three genders,-masculine, feminine, and neuter; and two numbers, singular and plural, in most nouns.

Obs. The gender of a noun is known either by its meaning or by its form. The latter distinction depends upon the declension, and will be treated in its proper place. According to the meaning (a) the following nouns are generally masculine: names of Gods, men, male animals, and the inhabitants of different countries, as Jupiter, consul, taurus, Iberus; of mountains, rivers, winds and months, as Olympus, Tiberis, Boreas, September. (b) The following are generally feminine: names of Goddesses, women, female animals, countries, islands, cities, and plants, as Juno, virgo, vacca, Italia, Naxos, Pharsalia, salix. (c) The following are neuter: all indeclinable substantives, as fas, 'right; nefas, 'wrong' and all verbs, &c. used as substantives, as scire tuum nihil est, 'your knowing or knowledge is nothing;' because we supply in our thoughts 'the thing called right, wrong, knowing.' (d) The following are either masculine or feminine, and are called common: nouns which may denote indifferently either a male or female person or animal, as civis, 'a male or female citizen;' adolescens, a young man or woman;' testis, 'a witness;' parens, 'a parent;' bos, 'an ox or cow;' sus, 'a hog or sow,' &c.

(3) There are two great classes of Latin nouns,-vowel nouns in -a or -o, and consonant nouns. The semi-consonant nouns in -i and -u are properly appended to the latter class.

(4) The following rules apply to all declensions:

(a) The N. A. V. pl. end in -ă in all neuter nouns.

(b) The A. sing. ends in -m in all m. and f. nouns, and the A. pl. ends in -s in all but neuter nouns.

(c) The G. pl. ends in -um in all nouns.

(5) The following rules distinguish vowel nouns from consonant nouns of all kinds :