(2) Verbs formed from other verbs.

(aa) Verbs in -sco are generally formed from -e verbs, which exist or may be presumed; and they very often appear with prepositions prefixed, as taceo, conticesco; valeo, convalesco; frigeo, refrigesco, &c.; but they are also formed from other verbs, the a and being retained in the conjugations characterized by those vowels, and the vowel i being inserted before the affix in derivatives from consonant verbs; thus, from labare we have labasco; from gelo, congelasco; from dormio, obdormisco; from gemo, ingemisco; from vivo, revivisco, &c.

(bb) Some few verbs are formed in -illo (-āre) and -ŭlo (-āre) ; in the former case, as it seems, from the infinitive, as in cavillor for cavere-lor, 'I let myself take care;' conscribillo for conscribere-lo, 'I let write, I write at random;' sometimes from the supine, as postu-lo for poscitum-lo, 'I let ask,' cantillo for cantum-lo, 'I let sing,' &c.

(cc) A change in the form of the verb produces sometimes a change in the meaning from transitive to intransitive, and it is not easy in every case to determine the process of derivation by which the change is effected. Sometimes it is merely conjugational, as when we have the neuter verbs, fugio, 'I flee;' jaceo, 'I lie;' liqueo, I am clear;' pendeo, 'I hang;' sedeo, 'I sit;' by the side of the transitive verbs, fugo (-are), ' I put to flight;' jacio, 'I throw ;' liquo (-are), ‘I make clear;' pendo, 'I weigh' (by hanging up in a scale); sedo (-are), 'I pacify.' Sometimes the form of the rootsyllable is changed, as in caedo, 'I fell' or 'cause to fall,' by the side of cădo, 'I fall;' and we have both differences in pando, 'I open;' scando, 'I climb;' by the side of pateo, 'I am laid open;' scateo, 'I rise up' (of water, &c.). In ven-do, 'I give for sale, I sell,' by the side of ven-eo, 'I go for sale, I am sold,' we have probably a combination with the verbs do and eo; cf. per-do and per-eo.

§ 2. Composition.

118 A compound is an union of two or more words of which the last only is inflected, the preceding word or words being in a dependent or construct state, and having consequently lost all inflexion. If both parts retain their inflexion, or, if the first part, though an oblique case, is separable, the composition is only appa

rent; thus, respublica, 'the commonwealth,' jusjurandum, ' an oath,' in which both parts are declined throughout, and senatusconsultum, 'a resolution of the senate,' verisimilis, 'like the truth,' are not compounds, but juxtapositions of separable elements, and we may say resque publica, senatusve consulta.

Obs. Even in regular compounds this tmesis or separation may take place in poetry; thus we have in Virgil inque ligatus for illigatusque, inque salutatus for insalutatusque; and the emphatic prefix per may suffer tmesis even in prose, as per mihi mirum videtur; pergratum perque jucundum est, &c. The adverbial combinations hactenus, eatenus, quadamtenus, are also divisible into their component parts; as est quadam prodire tenus, si non datur ultra; and the affix cunque may be detached from its relative, as qua re cunque possum; quo ea me cunque ducet; quam rem cunque ferox miles gesserit.

I. The formation of compounds.

119 The first part of a true compound is either an indeclinable word, or a noun, whether substantive, adjective, or numeral, and the latter part of the word always determines to what part of speech the whole belongs.

(a) When the first part is a particle, the vowels and diphthongs ǎ, ě, ae, au in the root of the word which follows are liable to be changed into i, e, i, ū or ē respectively (above, p. 8); thus, from amicus, capio, we have in-imicus, ac-cipio; from teneo we have con-tineo; from aequus, aestimo, we have in-iquus, ex-istimo; from claudo, causa, ex-cludo, ac-cuso; from audio, obedio, &c.; but before two consonants, and sometimes before a consonant and the semi-consonant i, a is represented by e; compare barba, im-berbis; scando, as-cendo; spargo, con-spergo; &c., with facio, pro-fic-iscor, pro-fectus; jacio, ab-jicio, ab-jectus; cano, concino, con-centus; pario, peperi; and before and a consonant a may become u: compare calco, con-culco, with colo, cultura. In some cases an e is retained, as in peto, ap-peto; tego, con-tego; fremo, per-fremo; and lego exhibits in its compounds both e and i, as per-lego, intel-ligo; the compounds of traho, caveo and haereo retain the vowel or diphthong unaltered, and the same applies to all the compounds of maneo, and to the adjective concavus.

Obs. 1 The particles, which may form the first part of a compound, are either adverbs, prepositions, or the inseparable words mentioned above (111). Of these latter, it seems that amb- sometimes appeared in the fuller form ambi-, more directly referring to ambo, and in one par

ticular case, that of ambidens, scil. ovis, 'a sheep having both the upper and lower teeth,' and therefore of fit age for sacrifice (Festus, p. 4), this form has suffered apocope, and under the usual form bidens this name of a sheep is liable to confusion with bidens, 'a mattock' (from bis-dens, cf. tridens). The word ambiegnus, 'having a lamb on both sides' (Varro, L. L. vII. 31), was also written ambegnus (Fest. p. 4). Semis, a half,' appears in compounds as semi-, e.g. in semi-supinus; sesque, and a half,' appears as sesqui-, e.g. in sesquipes; and we have also ses-, as in sestertius.

Obs. 2 The negative prefixes in Latin are in- and ne- or nec-. The prefix in- is found only with adjectives, adverbs, and a few participles used as adjectives, as incultus, indoctus; or with derivatives from substantives, as the adjective informis from forma, and the substantive injuria from jus. It is liable to the same modifications as the preposition in, from which it must sometimes be distinguished, as infectus, ‘undone,' by the side of infectus (from inficio), 'dyed, stained;' indictus, 'unsaid,' by the side of indictus (from indico), enjoined.' The prefix ně- or necis of rather rare occurrence. We have ně- in nequeo, nefas, nefarius, nefandus, něfastus; ne- in nequam, nequitia, nequaquam, nequicquam, nēdum; nec- in něcopinatus, něcopinus, negligo, nego (nec-aio), negotium.

(b) When the first word is a noun and the second begins with a vowel, an elision takes place, as in magn'animus; but if the second begins with a consonant, the connecting vowel is generally i, as causi-dicus, corni-ger, aedi-fico. Sometimes, however, the i is omitted, as in naufragus (from navis and frango), puer-pera (from puer and pario), mus-cipula (from mus and capio), and sometimes a characteristic letter and its preceding vowel are left out before i, as in lap-i-cida for lapidi-cīda, hom-i-cida for hominicida, op-i-fex for opěrifex, &c. When the first is a numeral, it is either unchanged, as in decemvir, or is specially changed, as in biceps, triumvir, ‘one man of three.' In some few cases the connecting vowel is ou; as Aheno-barbus, Troju-gena, vio-lentus, opu-lentus, turbŭ-lentus, quadrupes; and in tibi-cen for tibi-i-cen, we have a contracted i, though tub-i-cen follows the general rule. In some compounds with manus the second vowel is represented by u or i, as manu-pretium or mani-pretium, mani-festus, mani-plus, &c.; and we have a contraction in manubrium for manu-hibrium. In other compounds with this word the n alone is retained, and, in some cases, assimilated to a succeeding consonant; thus we have man-do, man-ceps, mansuetus, man-tele, mal-lurium. The adverbs bene, male, retain the final e in bene-ficus, male-ficus, but change it into i in beni-gnus, mali-gnus.

II. The classification of compounds.

Considered as a declinable whole, a compound word is either a substantive, an adjective, or a verb.

(A) Compound Substantives.

(1) Most compound substantives are derivatives of compound verbs, as ad-ven-a (advenio), trans-fug-a (transfugio), de-lec-tus (deligo), pro-gres-sus (progredior), &c.

(2) Some are compounded of a substantive and a verb, as artifex (arte facio), aurīga (auream ago), lani-ficium (lana facio), au-spicium (aves specio), agri-cola (agrum colo), agri-peta (agrum peto), caeli-cola (caelum colo), homi-cida (hominem caedo), caussidicus (caussam dico), &c.

(3) Some are compounded of a preposition and a noun, as abavus, ag-nomen (ad-nomen), com-mercium (cum-merx), pro-consul, &c.

(4) Some are compounded of a numeral and a noun, as decemvir, tri-duum, quadri-ennium.

(5) Some are compounded of two substantives, as rupi-capra from rupes and capra.

(6) Some of an adjective and a substantive, as rect-angulum, stulti-loquum; but these generally belong to Latinity of a later

age.

(B) Compound Adjectives.

(a) The last part is a substantive.

(a) If the last part is a substantive, and is a consonantal noun masc. or fem., it often remains unchanged, as in bi-pes, bi-color, de-mens; and then it retains the inflexions of the original substantive, except that ex-sanguis has for its gen. exsanguis, not exsanguinis; acc. exsanguem, not exsanguinem. If the substantive involved is neuter, or of the 1st or 2nd declension, or of the semiconsonantal declension, the compound adjective ends in -is, -e, or -us, -a, -um, as de-vius (via), e-nervis (nervus), bi-maris (mare), centi-manus (-a, -um), cog-nominis (nomen).

D. L. G.

15

Obs. Except the compounds with caput, as bi-ceps, bi-cipitis; with corpus, as bi-corpor, bi-corporis; and with cor, as con-cors, con-cordis; which retain the inflexions of their primitives.

(8) The first part of a compound adjective, whose last part is derived from a substantive, is either

(aa) Another substantive, as in aeri-pes, angui-manus.

(bb) An adjective or numeral, as in bi-linguis, long-aevus, lati-fundium.

(cc) A preposition or other particle, as in a-mens, per-vius, in-ers. (b) The last part is a verb.

(a) If the last part is a verb, the compound adjective generally ends in -us, -a, -um appended to the verb-root, as luci-fugus, fatiloquus, monti-vagus. But compounds with gero and fero generally end in -ger and -fer, those from capio end in -ceps, and those from frango and dico shorten the ending into -frăgus, -dicus; thus we have igni-fer, flammi-ger, parti-ceps, nau-frăgus, veri-dicus.

(B) The first part of a compound adjective, whose last part is derived from a verb, is either

(aa) A substantive, which is generally an accusative, more rarely an ablative dependent on the verb, as caduci-fer (caduceum ferens), igni-vomus (ignem vomens), monti-vagus (in monte vagans), nocti-vagus (nocte vagans), &c.

(bb) An adjective, either substantively, as the object of the verb, or adverbially, as a secondary predicate; thus we have falsi-dicus (falsa dicens), multi-loquus (multa or multum loquens), alti-sonus (alte sonans), soli-vagus (solus vagans), bene-ficus (bene faciens), &c.

(c) The last part is an adjective.

If the last part of the compound adjective is itself an adjective, the first part is either a preposition or an inseparable particle; thus we have per-difficilis, prae-dives, sub-agrestis, sub-pallidus, immemor, im-pudens, in-imicus, &c.