(7) The dative, as expressing the limitation, and all that belongs to it.

(8) The ablative, as expressing the means or instrument, and all that belongs to it.

It will be observed that, if the main verb is impersonal, it will precede any expression of the subject, which is generally given in the accusative case; that an adverb will often be taken immediately before the verb, especially a negative particle; that prepositions, with their cases, will follow the word which they define; and that the accusative, dative, and ablative may be taken in an order different from that given above, if the verb requires that either the dative or ablative should immediately follow it, rather than the accusative.

The beginning of Cæsar's speech (Sallust, Cat. 51) will serve as an example of these rules. The Latin order is: Omnes homines, Patres Conscripti, qui de rebus dubiis consultant, ab odio, amicitia, ira atque misericordia vacuos esse decet. Haud facile animus verum providet, ubi illa officiunt; neque quisquam omnium lubidini simul et usui paruit. The English construing will be as follows: Patres Conscripti (vocative), decet (impersonal verb) omnes homines (accusative of the immediate object with its epithet), qui (relative with its sentence, conveying an additional epithet or definition of the accusative homines, which is here the real subject of the infinitive which follows) consultant (verb, containing the primary predicate of the relative clause) de dubiis rebus (ablative with its epithet, dependent on de, and expressing the object of consultant), esse (copula of the sentence dependent on decet) vacuos (predicate of homines) ab odio, &c. (ablatives dependent on ab and explanatory of vacuos). Animus (subject) haud facile (adverbs) providet (verb containing predicate) verum (accusative of the immediate object), ubi (adverb of place, equivalent to case of relative) illa (subject) officiunt (verb containing predicate); neque (disjunctive conjunction) quisquam (subject) paruit (verb containing predicate) simul (adverb of time) lubidini et usui (datives of limitation) omnium (dependent genitive).

CHAPTER II.

CASES OF NOUNS.

§ 1. The Nominative and its Adjuncts.

138 THE nominative is used to express not only the subject of the sentence, but also the predicate, whenever the copula appears in the form of a verb denoting existence and the like. In either case it carries along with it the accompanying adjective, whether it be an epithet or a secondary predicate, and the explanatory adjunct, whether it be another noun in apposition or a relative sentence. It is true that most of these adjuncts may be found with oblique cases as well as with the nominative; indeed, any nominative, which appears as the subject of a finite verb, may be turned into the accusative when it appears as the subject of a verb in the infinitive mood; but it will be most convenient that all these qualifying expressions should be discussed once for all in connexion with the nominative, not only because they belong primarily to the subject, but also because they are sometimes referred to a department of Latin syntax which is formally distinguished from that which treats of the oblique cases. In some grammars it is the practice to consider separately the Syntaxis Convenientiae, which treats of the concord or agreement of the separate parts of a proposition, and the Syntaxis Rectionis, which treats of the dependence of one part of the sentence upon another, so that one member is said 'to govern' (regere) another member in the same clause. It will be in accordance with this arrangement, if, in speaking of the nominative, we consider in order (A) the agreement of the nominative with its verb; (B) the agreement of the adjective with its substantive; (C) the agreement of the relative with its antecedent; (D) the apposition of a noun or participle in the same case; (E) the agreement of the subject and predicate.

(A)

Agreement of the Nominative with its Verb.

139 (a) The number and person of the verb are regulated by the number and person of the nominative or subject; as

Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis; ego libertatem peperi, vos partam servare non vultis, ‘I have expelled kings, you are introducing tyrants; I have procured liberty, you, after it has been procured, are unwilling to keep it.'

(b) If there are two or more nominatives, the verb which follows is in the plural, provided the nominatives indicate persons; but if the verb precedes, or if the nominatives do not indicate persons, the verb may be either singular or plural; as

Pompeius, Scipio, et Africanus foede perierunt, 'Pompey, Scipio, and Africanus perished disgracefully.'

Beneficium et gratia sunt vincula concordiae, 'kindness and good feeling are the bonds of harmony.'

Virtus et honestas et pudor cum consulibus esse cogebat, 'virtue, honour, and shame compelled me to be with the consuls.'

Tempus necessitasque postulat, ' time and necessity demand it.' Dixit hoc Zosippus et Ismenias, 'Zosippus and Ismenias said this.'

(c) Collective nouns like pars, turba, vis, multitudo, when they denote a number of persons, are construed with a plural verb. The same is the case with distributive words and phrases like quisque, pro se quisque, neuter, uterque, alius-alium, vir-virum, which must be regarded as a sort of parenthetical apposition to the plural subject of the verb. The same principle explains the use of a plural verb when another subject is added with the preposition cum. Thus we have

Magna pars vulnerati aut occisi sunt, 'they,' i.e. 'a great part of them, were wounded or slain.'

Magna vis hominum segetem fuderunt in Tiberim, 'a great mass of men cast the corn into the Tiber.'

Pro se quisque miles gaudio alacres fremunt, 'excited by joy they shout, each soldier of them.'

Uterque exercitum ex castris educunt, both the one and the other lead their armies from the camp.'

D. L. G.

17

Ilia cum Lauso de Numitore sati sunt, they, that is, Ilia together with Lausus, were sprung from Numitor.'

But unus et alter may have a verb in the singular; as, dicit unus et alter breviter, 'one and the other,' i.e. 'one after the other, speaks briefly.'

(d) When the substantive verb stands between two nouns of different numbers, it takes its number from that with which it is most closely connected in meaning or position; as

Praecipuum robur Rhenum juxta octo legiones erant, 'the main force near the Rhine consisted in eight legions.'

Magnae divitiae sunt lege naturae composita paupertas, 'poverty regulated by the law of nature constitutes great riches.'

(e) With regard to the person of the verb, if the pronouns ego, nos, tu, vos, appear together, or by the side of some subject in the third person, the verb is plural, but takes its person from the pronoun which stands first in the usual order of reference, that is, the first in preference to the second person, and the second in preference to the third; as

Pater, ego, fratresque mei terra marique pro vobis arma tulimus, 'my father, myself, and my brothers (we) have borne arms for you by land and sea.'

Si tu et Tullia valetis, bene est; ego et Cicero valemus, 'if you and Tullia are (both of you) in good health, it is well; I and Cicero (both of us) are in good health.'

(B) Agreement of the Adjective with its Substantive.

140 (a) The adjective, whether it be epithet or predicate, agrees with its substantive in gender, number, and case; as

Amicus certus in re incerta cernitur, 'a sure friend is distinguished in an uncertain matter.'

Sera nunquam est ad bonos mores via, 'the way to good conduct is never too late.'

Sapientia est rerum divinarum et humanarum scientia, 'wisdom is the knowledge of things human and divine.'

The apparent exceptions to this rule are the following:

(a) An adjective taken substantively in the neuter singular may appear as the predicate to a masculine or feminine noun, either singular or plural; as

Triste lupus stabulis, maturis frugibus imbres, 'the wolf is a baneful thing to the folds, and showers [are a baneful thing] to ripened corn.'

Mors omnium rerum extremum est, 'death is the last thing of all events.'

Varium et mutabile semper femina, 'a woman is always a fickle and changeable creature.'

(B) If a substantive denotes a person of a different gender, the adjective will generally agree with it in gender, when used as a mere epithet; but will take the gender of the person signified, when used as a primary predicate; as

Dicaearchus, meae deliciae, 'Dicæarchus, my favourite author;' but, mea Glycerium, 'my dear Glycerium.'

And, Millia triginta servilium capitum dicuntur capti, 'thirty thousand slaves are said to have been taken.'

(7) A predicative adjective is always in the neuter singular when the subject is an infinitive verb or a sentence; as

Errare humanum est, 'to err is human.'

Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, 'it is sweet and noble to die for one's country.'

(b) An adjective in agreement with the noun very often expresses the secondary predicate, or is used in cases when we should employ an adverb of time, place, manner, or degree; as Roma parentem, Roma patrem patriae Ciceronem libera dixit, 'Rome, while still free, called Cicero parent, and father of his country.' Prudens, sciens, imprudens, invitus, frequens, and words of order or position are most commonly used in this way. In some cases it is quite optional whether we use an adjective or an adverb; thus we may say either tardus or tarde ad me venisti, 'you were slow in coming to me,' i.e. 'you came to me slowly;' either laetus or laete vivit, he lives cheerfully;' either libens or libenter hoc feci, 'I did this gladly.' But sometimes it makes a great difference whether we use the adjective or the adverb (123, (10)), especially in the case of primus and solus, which are used in Latin where we should employ a relative sentence; as