But the imperfect or pluperfect of the subjunctive is always used after quum or ubi, 'when,' if we wish to indicate not only the time, but a necessarily antecedent circumstance. In this case we may often render the phrase by the English participle; as quum videret, 'seeing' or 'upon seeing;' quum vidisset, 'having seen' or in consequence of his having seen.' Thus,

In Cumano quum essem, venit ad me Hortensius, 'during my stay in his neighbourhood, as a sort of consequence of my being there, Hortensius came to see me.'

Alexander, quum interemisset Clitum, vix manus a se abstinuit, 'Alexander, having killed Clitus, as a result or consequence, was all but laying violent hands on himself,'

Id ubi dixisset, hastam emittebat, 'having first said this' or 'as soon as ever he had said this, he proceeded to throw his spear.' See below, 206, (y).

(b) Antequam and priusquam are used with the indicative when there is merely a mark of tense and no hypothetical connexion, but we have the subjunctive when the preceding event is supposed to be in some sort the cause of the subsequent; thus,

Tempestas minatur antequam surgat, 'a tempest threatens before it rises' (but if there is to be a tempest at all, it must rise).

Medico priusquam conetur aegro adhibere medicinam, natura corporis cognoscenda est, 'the physician must learn the nature of the body before he attempts to give medicine to the sick' (where a condition is involved).

But, Omnia experiri certum est priusquam pereo, 'I am resolved to try every thing before I am ruined' (a consummation which I hope to avoid).

Neque prius fugere destiterunt, quam ad Rhenum pervenerunt, 'they did not leave off running away, until they got to the Rhine' (a mere mark of time),

And we may say either antequam dicam or antequam dicere instituo after a future (cf. Cic. Philipp. 1. 1, with pro Murena, I. 1), because the latter is a periphrasis of the subjunctive present.

See below, 206, (8).

(c) Donec, quoad, 'until,' 'as long as,' and dum, 'until,' 'while,' 'as long as,' take the indicative when they merely indicate continuance in time; but if they imply a cause or condition, and so approximate to the other meaning of dum, they are followed by the subjunctive; as

Priami dum regna manebant, while, as long as, during the time that, the kingdom of Priam lasted.'

Milo in senatu fuit illo die, quoad senatus dimissus est, ‘Milo was in the senate on that day until the senate was adjourned.' Donec rediit Marcellus, silentium fuit, 'the silence lasted until Marcellus returned.'

But, Haud desinam donec perfecero, 'I will not leave off until I shall have accomplished it' (I will do so only on that proviso). Tertia dum regnantem viderit aetas, until the third age shall have seen him reigning.'

Exspectas fortasse dum haec dicat, 'you are waiting perhaps until he says this' (it is the condition or cause of your patience).

(3) In causal sentences, (a) quum, 'since,' ' because,' is followed by a subjunctive when the circumstances are intimately connected, so that the sentence may be rendered by our participle (as above, 176, (2)); but it takes the indicative when the cause is introduced as an independent fact; thus,

Quum vita sine amicis insidiarum et metus plena sit, ratio ipsa monet amicitias comparare, 'since life without friends is (or 'life being') full of treachery and fear, reason itself warns us to form friendships.'

But, Gratulor tibi, quum apud Dolabellam tantum vales, 'I congratulate you, because (as a fact) you have so much influence with Dolabella.'

(b) Quod, quia, quoniam, quandoquidem, which are much more frequently used than quum in the case just mentioned, take the indicative except in the case stated above, (175, (b), (5)), when the cause is assigned as the opinion of some other person, so that the sentence is oblique; thus, Fecisti mihi pergratum quod Serapionis librum mihi misisti, 'you have obliged me by sending the book of Serapion; but, Hic tu me accusas quod me afflictem, 'here you accuse me because (as you say) I afflict myself.'

(c) Quippe qui, and ut or utpote qui generally take the subjunctive; as Plato a Dionysio violatus erat, quippe quem venumdari jussisset, 'Plato had been ill used by Dionysius, for he had ordered him to be sold.'

(4) In concessive sentences we may have either an extreme supposition or the statement of a fact; in the latter case we have

generally quamquam, although,' or utut, however much,' followed by the indicative. An extreme supposition is expressed by etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, 'even if,' with the indicative or subjunctive, according to the rules for the use of these moods and their tenses in the conditional sentences (176, (1)). Licet, it is allowable,' after which ut must be supplied (178, Obs. 2), and quamvis or quantumvis, with or without licet, as much as you please,' properly and regularly take the subjunctive, although quamvis is used parenthetically with the indicative in some few instances, chiefly in the poets, who also use quanquam in the sense of quamvis with the subjunctive. Ut, 'granting that,' necessarily takes the subjunctive. Thus we have Romani, quanquam fessi erant, tamen procedunt, 'the Romans, although they were tired, nevertheless advance.' Dis quanquam geniti essent, although, as I knew, they were born of the gods' (Virg. Æn. vI. 394), i. e. as Heyne says, the reference is to Charon's thoughts or knowledge. Tametsi vicisse debeo, tamen de meo jure decedam, although I ought to have gained the day, nevertheless I will relinquish my rights.' Fremant omnes, licet; dicam quod sentio, although all exclaim against it (they may all do so, it is allowed), I will nevertheless say what I think.' Quod turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nullo modo potest, 'that which is disgraceful, let it be concealed as much as you please, still can never become honourable.' Pollio amat nostram (quamvis est rustica) musam, ‘Pollio loves our muse,―albeit she is as countrified as you please.' Ut fueris dignior, non competitor in culpâ est, granting that you were more worthy, still your competitor is not in fault."

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§ 3. Construction of the Infinitive, Participles and other Verbals. (1) Infinitive. •

177 The infinitive, which expresses the mere action of the verb, may be considered either (A) as a substantive, undeclined, and of the neuter gender (above, 5 (2), Obs.), or (B) as a verb in the objective sentence, with the accusative as its subject (above, 144).

(A) As a substantive, the infinitive mood is either the nominative to a verb or an oblique case governed by it: (a) when used as a nominative, the infinitive may have a neuter pronoun or adjective in agreement with it, as Postquam sapere urbi venit nostrum hoc maris expers, after this insipid wisdom of ours has come to the city; (b) when used as an oblique case after a verb, the infinitive may depend on a preposition or have a tertiary predicate dependent

on it; as Multum interest inter dare et accipere, there is a great difference between giving and receiving.' Mori nemo sapiens miserum dixerit, 'no philosopher will be found to have called death (the act of dying) miserable.'

(B) As a verb in the objective sentence: (a) the infinitive with its adjuncts may be the subject of a copulative verb, the predicate being some noun in the nominative case; as

Diligere parentes prima naturae lex est, 'to love one's parents is the first law of nature.'

Apud Persas summa laus est fortiter pugnare, ' among the Persians to fight bravely is the highest excellence.'

(b) The infinitive by itself or in the oblique sentence is the subject of all verbs of an impersonal nature whether the copula is expressed or included; as

Juvat integros accedere fontes, 'to approach the untasted fountains is pleasant.'

Victorem parcere victis aequum est, 'that a conqueror should spare the vanquished is a right thing.'

Ad salutem civium inventas esse leges constat, 'that laws were invented for the safety of citizens is an established point.'

Obs. For the case of the predicate with the infinitive, see above, 143, II. For the tense of the infin. in the objective sentence, see below, (e) Obs. 2. As the infin. has no imperf. or pluperf. tense, the present and perfect are used when these tenses are required by the context.

(c) The infinitive in the objective sentence is used after all verbs of seeing, hearing, knowing, thinking, saying, &c.; as

Audio te contumeliose de me dicere, 'I hear that you are speaking of me in an insulting manner.'

Ego tibi hoc confirmo, nihilo te nunc majore in discrimine esse, ‘I assure you of this, that you are not now in any greater danger.'

(d) The infinitive, without a subject of its own, appears as the necessary supplement to those verbs which contain no complete predication in themselves, for instance, those which express will, obligation, power, necessity, commencement, custom, or cessation; as

Malo beneficii mei oblivisci, quam periculi vestri meminisse, ‘I rather wish to forget my kindness, than remember your danger.' Quae fortuita sunt, certa esse non possunt, those things which are casual, cannot be certain.'

(e) The infinitive with the personal or reflexive pronoun follows a verb of believing, hoping, promising, and in the last two

cases we have generally the future active participle without the substantive verb; as

Credo me tibi esse carissimum, 'I believe that I am most dear

to you.'

Spero me propediem istuc venturum esse (or without esse), 'I hope that I shall soon come to the place where you are.'

Caesar pollicetur se iis auxilio futurum, 'Cæsar promises that he will assist them.'

Obs. 1 The accusative of personal pronouns may be omitted before the infinitive when the subject is the same, and the poets even imitate the Greek construction and place the predicate after esse in the nom.; as Rettulit Ajax esse Jovis pronepos, Ajax declared that he was the great grandson of Jupiter;' like the Greek paσkev Aiòs elvai, though the more common construction is, se pronepotem esse. So also, Phaselus ille quem videtis, hospites, ait fuisse navium celerrimus, ‘that skiff, which ye see, O strangers, says that it was the swiftest of vessels.' After verbs of wishing and endeavouring, the pronoun is generally omitted, and the nominative retained when the subject is the same; as eruditus fieri cupio, 'I desire to be learned.' After volo and nolo in particular the past passive participle is used with or without esse, to denote the complete accomplishment of the wish; as Corinthum exstinctam esse volo, I would have Corinth destroyed;' id factum nollem, 'I would rather not have that done.'

Obs. 2 In most cases the tense of the infinitive is that of the dependent verb in English; as arbitror te dixisse, 'I presume that you said;' promittebat se venturum, 'he promised that he would come;' audio hominem laudatum iri, 'I hear that the man will be praised.' Sometimes the future is expressed by a periphrasis of fore or futurum esse for a continuous state, and futurum fuisse for a contingent futurity; as spero fore ut contingat id nobis, I hope it will so happen that this may fall to our lot;' ignorabat futurum fuisse ut urbs dederetur, 'he knew not that it would have come to pass that the city would be given up.' But after verbs expressing possibility or obligation, the past tense is expressed by the main verb, and the infinitive is always present; thus we say licuit mihi ire, it was allowed to me to go' 'I might have gone;' facere potui, 'I had the power to do it' = 'I could have done it;' oportuit te dicere, 'it behoved you to speak' = 'you ought to have spoken.' Although spero is generally followed by the future, according to the rule (above, (e)), there are some few instances in which it takes the present infinitive; as Spero nostram amicitiam non egere testibus. Cic. ad div. II. 2. Magnitudine poenae reliquos deterrere sperans. Cæs. B. C. III. 8.

=

Obs. 3 We have an infinitive of the passive voice after coeptus sum and desitus sum; as Desiderari coepta est Epaminondae diligentia, the diligence of Epaminondas began (was begun) to be missed.' Papirius is, qui primus Papisius vocari est desitus, 'that Papirius, who was the first who left off (was left off) being called Papisius.' We have also sometimes a passive infinitive after solitus sum.