Obs. 4 We occasionally find the present participle instead of the infinitive, after audire, videre, and facere (in the sense to introduce or exhibit in writing'); as Heraclitum studiose audivi contra Antiochum disserentem, I have heard Heraclitus eagerly reasoning against Antiochus.' Xenophon facit Socratem disputantem, formam Dei quaeri non oportere, Xenophon introduces Socrates arguing that the form of the Deity ought not to be inquired into.'

Obs. 5 Verbs of seeing, &c. (above, (c)) do not take the infinitive in an indirect interrogation; thus we say ex his intelligitur, quanta Ciceronis fuerit auctoritas (above, 128, XII.), not quantam Ciceronis fuisse auctoritatem. But it is good Latin to say Quantam censes Ciceronis fuisse auctoritatem, because in this case quantam is a mere predicate.

Obs. 6 If the dependent infinitive has an accusative of the object as well as an accusative of the subject, and if the context is not sufficient to remove all ambiguity, the active construction is changed into the passive; thus we say Clitarchus narravit Darium ab Alexandro superatum esse, not Darium superasse Alexandrum. But the context shows that Amazones is the subject in Constat magnam Asiae partem tenuisse Amazones.

178 Whenever we wish to express the end rather than the object of an action, that is, whenever the preposition 'to' prefixed to an English infinitive means 'to the end that,' or 'in order to,' we must use ut with the subjunctive instead of the infinitive in Latin. Thus, as a general rule, we have ut with the subjunctive after verbs of asking, commanding, advising, intending, and effecting; as

Id agit ut se conservet, 'he does his best to (i. e. to the end that he may) preserve himself.'

Te oro et hortor ut diligens sis, ‘I beg and exhort you to (i. e. to the end or intent that you may) be diligent.'

Obs. 1 Some verbs belonging to this class take the infinitive as well as the subjunctive with ut, but with a difference of meaning: thus when moneo or admoneo signifies 'to inform or remind' it takes the infinitive; as moneo te hoc falsum esse, 'I apprize you that this is false;' but we have moneo ut quiescas, 'I exhort you to be quiet.' Persuadeo, I convince,' takes the infinitive; as persuasit mihi hoc verum esse, 'he convinced me that this was true;' but when it means 'I induce' it is followed by the final sentence with ut; as quis tibi persuasit ut hoc faceres? 'who so far persuaded you that you did this?' i. e. 'who induced you to do it?' Jubeo, 'I order,' takes the infinitive because it expresses the thing commanded rather than the purpose; it may however have the subjunctive with ut, when it is used absolutely in the sense I give orders,' and this is generally the case with all other verbs of commanding. Fac, 'suppose,' and efficio, I prove,' take the infinitive, but facio, I effect, accomplish, bring it to pass,' is so regularly

used with the final clause that facio ut is often a mere periphrasis for a verb of action; as faciunt inviti ut dent = dant inviti, 'they give unwillingly;' libenter ac saepe fecerunt ut laudarent, they often and willingly praised.' The same is the case with many verbs expressing a result, a consequence, a contingency, as fit ut, fieri potest ut, accidit ut, accedit ut, sequitur ut, &c.

Obs. 2 Some verbs of willingness or permission, which usually take the infinitive, and some verbs of asking and advising, take the subjunctive without ut; this is particularly the case with fac, velim, nolim, malim, licet, necesse est, and oportet; as tu velim animo sapienti sis, 'I wish you to be wise.'

179 Whenever we wish to express the object or reference of an emotion with some indication of the cause, we use quod with the finite verb instead of the infinitive. This is particularly the case with verbs of grief, joy, surprise and admiration, and the sense is sometimes strengthened by a demonstrative antecedent; as

Doleo quod stomacharis, 'I am sorry that (or because') you are angry.'

Illud est admiratione dignum, quod captivos retinendos censuit, that is particularly worthy of admiration, namely, that he advised the retention of the prisoners.'

But gaudeo, doleo, miror may also take the infinitive (e. g. Cic. Att. xv. 27; VI. 3; ad div. I. 7), and there is only a shade of difference between the objective and causal construction.

180

There are three cases in which the infinitive may be used without the support of any finite verb:

(a) In the oblique narration, where it may even appear in relative sentences; as se quoque, quum transiret mare, non Ciliciam aut Lydiam, quippe tanti belli exiguam hanc esse mercedem, sed Persepolim, &c., imperio suo destinasse, where scripsit or dixit is to be supplied.

(b) As an equivalent to the present or imperfect indicative, which is probably a result of the oblique narration, the main verb being tacitly supposed; thus, ingenium ejus haud absurdum; posse versus facere, &c., it is reported that her abilities were the reverse of contemptible; that is, she could make verses, &c.;' postquam in aedes irruperunt, diversi regem quaerere, after they broke into the palace [we are told], they went in different directions to seek the king.'

Obs. The ellipsis of coepit, coeperunt, which is given in most Grammars, is not always applicable, and seems not to be founded in truth.

(c) In exclamations the accusative is used with the infinitive, as a merely objective sentence, just as the accusative alone is used with interjections (168); thus, adeone hominem esse infelicem quenquam, could any man at all be so unlucky!'

(2) Participles.

181 The participle, which must be regarded as a verb used adjectively, retains the verbal meaning of its tenses, so far as they are distinguished in this form, and governs the same case as its verb, except when it has assumed a secondary and attributive meaning; thus,

Dionysius cultros metuens tonsorios candenti carbone sibi adurebat capillum, 'Dionysius fearing the barber's rasor used to burn his hair with red hot charcoal.'

Caesar aggressus Pompeianos ex vallo deturbavit, Cæsar having attacked the Pompeians, drove them from the rampart.'

Quid nimis grave est in homines tanti facinoris convictos? 'what is too severe for men convicted of so great a crime?'

Atticus liberalitate utens nullas inimicitias gessit, 'Atticus, employing liberality, cherished no enmity.'

Obs. 1 When the present participle does not signify an action but a condition it becomes a mere adjective and is followed by a genitive (see above, 151). On the other hand, a verbal noun may take the case of the verb from which it is formed; as Quid tibi istune tactio est? 'what have you to do with touching that man?' Quid tibi huc receptio ad te est meum virum? 'what right have you to receive my husband into your house?' This usage seems, however, to be confined to interrogations.

Obs. 2 As the passive voice has no present participle, and as only deponent verbs have a past participle with an active signification, it is obvious that the application of the Latin participle to the expression of subordinate ideas must be very limited. And the want of a definite article leaves us no outward means of distinguishing between the participle as an epithet or description, and the same word as a causal, concessive, or hypothetical term. Hence, while on the one hand it is generally more convenient to substitute a complete sentence with some conjunction for the participle, as used in Greek, on the other hand, the Latin participle easily passes into a mere adjective, and, from that, becomes fixed in use as a substantive. Thus the active participles adolescens, parens, and sapiens are constantly used as substantives; secundus, following,' is always an adjective, 'second,' i. e. 'following in time or order,' and is generally used in a metaphorical or applied sense, as secundus ventus, 'a fair wind,' i. e. 'one which follows the ship,'

secundae res, 'fair, favouring, prosperous circumstances.' It is used properly in Virgil, Æn. 1. 156: curru secundo, 'the chariot which follows them,' i. e. the steeds. The passive participles acutus, argutus, &c., are almost always employed as epithets, and the neuters commentum, consultum, dictum, furtum, placitum, praeceptum, scriptum, &c., are to all intents and purposes substantives. And some of the participles in -ns have their degrees of comparison like the ordinary adjectives.

182 The participle is used in its proper or verbal sense,

(a) As a secondary predicate or apposition to the subject, which may be resolved into a parallel verb with a copulative conjunction; as

Lex est voluntas Dei, imperans honesta, prohibens contraria, 'law is the will of God, and it commands what is virtuous, and prohibits the contrary."

(b) As a tertiary predicate or apposition to the object, which may also be resolved as in the former case; but here the participle is in the perfect passive, and precedes in the resolved construction; as

Triginta tyranni plurimorum bona publicata inter se diviserunt, the thirty tyrants confiscated and divided among themselves the property of very many persons.'

Antiocho bellum a Romanis denuntiatum est, quod ille facile susceptum infeliciter gessit, 'the Romans declared war against Antiochus, which he undertook without hesitation but carried on unfortunately.'

(c) In temporal sentences; as

Domum reversus, litteras inveni tuas, 'when I got home, I letter.'

found

your

(d) In final sentences; as

Pergit ad Hammonem consulturus oraculum, he goes to Jupiter Hammon, for the purpose of consulting the oracle.'

(e) In causal sentences; as

Aer effluens huc et illuc ventos efficit, 'the air by rushing to and fro (i. e. because it does so) produces winds.'

(f) In concessive sentences, sometimes with quamvis, &c. added; as

Caesarem milites, quamvis recusantem, ultro in Africam sunt secuti, the soldiers went so far as to accompany Cæsar to Africa, although he refused to have them.'

(g) In the ablative absolute, as hypothetical, temporal, causal, or concessive; as

Tarquinio regnante, 'when Tarquin was king.'

Antonius, repudiata Octavia, Cleopatram duxit uxorem, Antony, having divorced Octavia (i. e. after he had done so), married Cleopatra.'

Comprehendi non poterat, tot Persarum millibus laturis opem regi, he could not be taken, because so many thousand Persians were likely to assist their king.'

Proposita sibi morte, although death was set before him.'

Obs. 1 In some passive participles the ablative absolute is used impersonally to denote the previous state of things which caused or suggested the main action; as Alexander, audito, Darium appropinquare, &c., Alexander, it being heard (i. e. intelligence having been brought) that Darius was drawing near, &c.'

The participles generally used in this way are audito, cognito, comperto, desperato, nunciato, edicto.

Obs. 2 Some passive participles are used in the neuter accus. after habeo, to form a periphrastic perfect, as in many of the modern languages; such are cognitum, comprehensum, constitutum, deliberatum, exploratum, perspectum, persuasum, &c.; as hoc cognitum habeo = hoc cognovi. All these, except persuasum, may agree with the object of the verb; as Omnes habeo cognitos sensus adolescentis, 'I have learnt all the feelings of the young man.'

(3) Gerunds and Gerundives.

183 The participle in -ndus is really only another form of that in -ns; it is therefore present in tense and active in signification; as

Volvenda dies, en, attulit ultro, 'time rolling on has brought it to you unexpectedly.' (Virg. Æn. IX. 7.)

Quae ante conditam condendamve urbem traduntur, 'traditions. derived from a period when the city was neither built nor building.' (Liv. Præfat.)

184 The participle in -ndus is generally found as a substitute for some use of the infinitive active (above, 70, (e), Obs. 2); and it is called the gerundium or gerund, when it governs the case of the verb, and the gerundivum or gerundive, when it agrees with the object; thus in consilium capiendi urbem we have a gerund, but in consilium urbis capiendae, a gerundive, and both phrases mean 'the design of taking the city.' This gerundive is merely