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an attraction; for dandus = dans, means 'giving;' ad dandum opes means 'for giving riches;' and this is attracted into the case of the object in ad opes dandas, 'for riches-giving,' with precisely the same signification.

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185 This attraction always takes place in the nominative after the impersonal est, in the sense of 'it is the duty, part, obligation, or destiny,' so that the verb becomes personal; in such a phrase as sapientis est seipsum nosse, 'it is the part of a wise man to know himself,' we should not think of inserting the gerund or gerundive; and we might say also, est Romanorum delere Carthaginem, ‘it is the part of the Romans to destroy Carthage;' but if, instead of the genitive with the infinitive, we had the dative of the person, the only allowable construction would be that of the attracted gerund or gerundive: delenda vobis est Carthago, 'Carthage is for you to destroy,' = 'you ought to destroy it.' This would commonly be rendered Carthage is to be destroyed,' and, from our idiom, it has been supposed that the participle in -ndus is future and passive. But it is often a matter of indifference in English, whether we use the active or passive infinitive; thus, he is a man to love,' = 'he is a man to be loved;' I give you this to eat,' 'I give you this to be eaten,' &c.; and this is the reason why a similar interchange has been erroneously presumed in Latin. No one can doubt that the gerund is active; but if vivendum est = vivere_est = = oportet vivere, there can be no reason why the gerundive should not be active also; for they are used sometimes in the very same sentence; as nunc est bibendum, nunc pede libero pulsanda tellus, 'now we must drink, now we must beat the ground with free foot;' and the gerundive and active infinitive are used indifferently, though the former is preferred, after verbs which express that a thing is given out, commissioned, or undertaken to be done; such as do, trado, permitto, accipio; thus we may have Antigonus Eumenem mortuum propinquis sepeliendum tradidit, 'Antigonus gave up the dead body of Eumenes to his friends for burial' (i. e. 'to bury'). (Corn. Nep. Eumen. 13); or, tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Creticum portare ventis, 'I will give up sorrow and fear to the wanton winds for transportation (i. e. 'to carry') to the Cretan sea.' (Hor. 1 Carm. XXVI, 1.)

186 The gerund in -dum, as it is called, is always dependent on prepositions, and mostly on ad or inter; as

Locus ad agendum amplissimus, 'a place most honourable to plead in.'

If the verb of the gerund requires an accusative, the gerundive is commonly preferred; as ad tolerandos labores, 'for enduring labours,' because tolero is transitive.

187 The gerund in -di is always used as a genitive after substantives implying desire, design, hope, power, cause, &c.; and after relative adjectives which require a genitive to complete their meaning; as

Innatus amor habendi, 'a natural desire of possessing stores.' Studiosus erat audiendi, 'he was very fond of hearing.'

If the verb of the gerund requires an accusative, the gerundive is preferred; as consuetudo hominum immolandorum, 'the custom of sacrificing human beings,' because immolo is transitive. The gerundive repetundus is used only in the gen. and abl. pl. to agree with pecuniarum and pecuniis, expressed or understood (generally the former in Cicero), and in the sense of 'extortion, illegal exaction;' as legem de pecuniis repetundis tulit, he brought in a law about extortion, i. e. 'concerning money to be redemanded and refunded' (see Tacit. Ann. XIII. 33, and cf. Varron. p. 430).

188 The gerund in -do is either dative or ablative. (a) When dative, it usually follows adjectives and verbs, to signify limitation or design; the adjectives most generally used with the dative of the gerund are accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, utilis, and inutilis; after which, however, the, gerund in -dum with ad may be substituted for the dative; thus we have both utilis bibendo and utilis ad bibendum, 'useful for drinking;' the verbs used with this gerund are generally sum and its compounds; as non solvendo est, 'he is insolvent;' scribendo adfuerunt, they were present at the drawing up of the decree.'

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(b) When ablative, the gerund in -do either denotes the instrument, in which case, of course, no preposition is necessary; as

Alitur vitium vivitque tegendo, 'the disease is nourished and lives by concealment ;'

or it is an ablative depending on ab, de, ex, or in; as

Aristotelem non deterruit a scribendo amplitudo Platonis, 'the grandeur of Plato did not deter Aristotle from writing.'

Summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, 'the greatest pleasure is derived from learning.'

If the verb of the gerund requires an accusative case, the gerundive is preferred to the gerund in -do, whether it be dative or ablative;

as

Tresviri reipublicae constituendae, 'a board of three commissioners for settling the constitution.'

Consul placandis dis dat operam, 'the consul pays attention to the appeasing of the gods.'

Fortitudo in laboribus periculisque subeundis cernitur, 'courage is manifested in undergoing toils and dangers.'

(4) Supines.

189 The supine in -tum is generally used after verbs of motion. It may be changed, without any difference of meaning, into the final subjunctive with ut; thus,

Spectatum veniunt, veniunt spectentur ut ipsae, 'they come to see' (we might say also ut spectent); they come that they may be seen themselves.'

Obs. 1 The synonymous substitutions for the supine in -tum will appear from the equivalence of the following usages:

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Obs. 2 The various expressions after which the supine in -tum is regularly used may be seen in the following examples:

Coriolanus in Volscos exsulatum abiit. Liv. II. 35. Galli gallinacei cum sole eunt cubitum. Plin. x. 21. Themistocles Argos habitatum concessit. Corn. Nep. 11. 8. Eumenes Antigonum in Mediam hiematum coëgit redire; ipse in finitima regione Persidis hiematum copias divisit. Corn. Nep. XVIII. 8. Totius fere Galliæ legati ad Cæsarem gratulatum convenerunt. Cæs. B. G. 1. 10. Lacedæmonii Agesilaum bellatum miserunt in Asiam. Corn. Nep. IX. 2. Athenienses miserunt Delphos consultum, quidnam facerent de rebus suis. Corn. Nep. II. 2. Fabius Pictor Delphos ad oraculum missus est sciscitatum, quibus precibus suppliciisque deos possent placare. Liv. XXII. 57. Porsena praedatum milites trans Tiberim aliis atque aliis locis trajecit. Liv. 11. 11. Stultitia est, venatum

ducere invitas canes. Plaut. Stich. 1. 2. 82. Nulli negare soleo, si quis esum me vocat. Ib. 1. 3. 28. Dumnorix propinquas suas nuptum in alias civitates collocavit. Cæs. B. G. 1. 18. Augustus filiam Juliam primum Marcello, deinde Marco Agrippa nuptum dedit. Suet. Aug. 63. Spectatum admissi risum teneatis amici. Hor. Ars Poet. 5.

Obs. 3 We have seen (70, 83) that the supine in -tum is regularly used with the passive iri to form the future passive of verbs, and that some compounds, as venumdo, also contain it; there are other paraphrases, such as perditum eo, ultum eo, which add little to the meaning of the verbs perdo, ulciscor.

Obs. 4 The poets sometimes use the common infinitive instead of the supine in -tum; as pecus egit visere montes. (Hor. 1. Carm. II. 7.)

190 The supine in -tu is used after fas, nefas, opus, and certain adjectives denoting quality, as facilis, difficilis, dignus, indignus, jucundus, injucundus, acerbus, honestus, mirabilis, turpis, utilis; but only a certain number of supines are used in this way, such as the following: auditu, cognitu, dictu, exitu, factu, intellectu, gustatu, inceptu, inventu, memoratu, scitu, visu; thus we have

Nefas est dictu, miseram fuisse Fabii Maximi senectutem, ‘it is wrong to say that the old age of Fabius Maximus was miserable.'

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Quid est tam jucundum cognitu et auditu, quam sapientibus sententiis gravibusque verbis ornata oratio? What is so pleasant to apprehend and hear as a speech embellished with wise sentiments and weighty words?'

Non longius quam quod scitu opus est in narrando procedetur, 'the narrative will not be carried on farther than is necessary for information.'

Pleraque dictu quam re sunt faciliora, most things are easier in the saying than in the doing (i. e. more easily said than done).'

Quod factu foedum est, idem est et dictu turpe, 'that which it is abominable to do, it is also disgraceful to speak.'

Obs. 1 This supine, like that in tum, may be changed into the gerund in -dum with ad; compare quid est tam jucundum auditu (Cic. de Orat. 1. 8) with verba ad audiendum jucunda (Id. Ibid. 1. 49). A dative in -tui is occasionally found with much the same meaning (above, 53, (a)).

Obs. 2 The poets use the infinitive instead of the supine in -tu; thus we have cereus in vitium flecti; mortem spernere nobilis; opprobria fingere saevus; facilis legi, &c.

CHAPTER IV.

SYNTAX OF SENTENCES.

§ 1. Definitions.

191 IN speaking hitherto of the details of Latin Syntax, we have addressed ourselves to the task of determining the functions of nouns and verbs according as their different inflexions contribute to the machinery of the simple sentence. It is true that any discussion of the moods and tenses of the verb must lead to some mention of the different kinds of sentences which they assist in forming; and in a less detailed exposition of Latin Syntax, it might be sufficient to enumerate the different classes of these accessory propositions, with references to the rules in which mention has been made of their essential elements. The student, however, who wishes to take a comprehensive view of Latin construction, and to use it as an exercise of his logical faculties, must make a fresh start from a knowledge of the facts which have been presented to him in the preceding chapters; and instead of contenting himself with rules for the use of separate words, he must learn to classify and analyse the different kinds of sentences, to recognize them when he finds them in the pages of the best authors, and to construct them himself, when he attempts to express his meaning in the Latin language.

192 Connected sentences are either co-ordinate, or one of them is subordinate to the other. This distinction will be best illustrated by the two different kinds of Hypothetical Propositions. For in logic all propositions are regarded according to their substance as either Categorical or Hypothetical. Categorical propositions contain a direct assertion or predication, either unqualified, as Deus est bonus, 'God is good;' or qualified, as homo prudentissimus falli

D. L. G.

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