Obs. 5 Uterque means 'both the one and the other' (Gr. ékátepos) ; ambo means 'both together' (Gr. äμow, aμpóтepos); quisque means 'each' or 'every one' of a larger number (Gr. ExaσTos); unusquisque means each' or 'every one' taken singly (Gr. eis ekaσTOS or Ws EKασTOS opposed to oúμñas, Herod. vi. 128; Thucyd. 1. 3); omnis means 'all, as many as there are,' 'all, as a collection of individuals' (Gr. râs); cuncti, for conjuncti, means 'all in a body,' i. e. 'all conjoined and united for a particular purpose and at a particular time' (Gr. åπavтes); universus means 'all acting by common consent,' i. e. all going in the same direction (una versus) and generally combined (Gr. ovμnas, ovváñas), so that it is opposed both to unusquisque (Cic. de Off. III. 6), and to singuli (Cic. de Nat. Deor. 11. 17); and totus means 'the whole,' i. e. that all the parts are so combined that they are regarded as forming a new unit (Gr. λos).

§ 5. Indefinite Relative Pronouns and their Correlatives.

69 Indefinite relatives are those formed by the addition of -cunque to any relative (67), and to the interrogative uter. The reduplicated quisquis is used both relatively and as an adjective signifying 'every.' It is commonly found only in the nom. masc. and in the nom. and accus. neuter quidquid or quicquid. The phrase cuicuĭmodi, ' of whatever kind,' has sprung from an abridgement of the gen. of this pronoun coupled with the gen. of modus. Several of these indefinite relatives have correlative forms, as follows:

Obs. 1 Aliquantus is generally used in the neuter (aliquantum, aliquanto) as a substantive. From tantus and its correlatives we have the diminutives, tantŭlus, 'so little,' quantulus, 'how little,' &c. &c.; from tantum we have tantundem (nom. acc. neut.), 'just so much,' gen. tantidem.

Obs. 2 The use of quisquis for quisque, in the sense 'every,' is of comparatively rare occurrence, though it is found in the best writers; e. g. in Cicero, ad Famil. vI. 1, § 1, we have quocunque in loco quisquis est, and in the same, book IV. § 3, ubi quisque sit in the same sense. In the neuter modern scholars write quicquid when it means 'every,' but quidquid when it means 'whatsoever;' thus in Lucret. v. 304: et primum quicquid fulgoris perdere semper, 'that they always lose every first gush of light; but Virgil, En. II. 49: quidquid id est, 'whatever that is.' Similarly they distinguish between quidque in the sense of et quid, and quicque the neuter of quisque.

Obs. 3 The adjective quotus signifies 'what in number?' of what number, order,' &c.; as hora quota est? what o'clock is it?' And quotus quisque means 'what one amongst many;' as quotus quisque philosophorum invenitur, 'how few philosophers there are.' The meaning of totus is shown by the line of Lucretius, VI. 652: nec tota pars homo terrai quota totius unus. And that of quotuscunque by the line of Tibullus, II. El. ult. ad fin.: moverit e votis pars quotacunque deos.

CHAPTER IV.

VERBS.

§ 1. Regular Verbs.

70 A REGULAR verb is that which may be inflected through all its voices, moods, tenses, numbers, persons, participles, gerunds, and supines.

'I

(a) Voices.

'I am

There are two voices, the active, in -o (with the exception of sum, 'I am;' inquam, 'I say'), which means that the subject or nominative does something; the passive, in -or, which expresses that the subject or nominative suffers something, or has something done to him, her, or it, and so becomes an object; thus, amo, 'I am loving' some object-i.e. I am the subject of love; amor, loved,' or some one loves me—i.e. I am the object of love. If the action of a verb is confined to itself, it is called intransitive; if it passes on to something else, it is called a transitive verb. Thus curro, I am running,' caleo, 'I am warm,' sto, 'I stand,' are intransitive verbs; but amo, 'I love,' scribo, 'I write,' are transitive verbs, because they generally imply and require some object expressed in the accusative to which the action immediately passes, as amo Deum, ‘I love God,' scribo epistolam, 'I write a letter.' If a verb is active in form, but intransitive in sense and usage, it is called neuter, that is, neither active nor passive; if it is transitive in sense and usage, but passive in form, it is called deponent ('laying aside,' from depono, because it lays aside its active form); and while the neuter verb is never used in a passive form, except when it is impersonal, the deponent verb has no active form, except in a few cases where both forms are used with the same signification. Thus curro, 'I run,' is a neuter verb; for though its form is active,

D. L. G.

6

and though it denotes an action, it is intransitive in sense and usage, and it cannot have a passive form except in the impersonal construction, as curritur a me, 'it is run by me' (below, 100). On the other hand, hortor, 'I exhort,' is deponent, for it is essentially transitive, and has not, by the nature of the case, any form to express a passive signification.

Obs. A transitive verb may be used intransitively; thus we may say absolutely amo, 'I am in love,' as well as amo te, I love thee;' and conversely an intransitive verb may have a transitive usage; thus we may say excedo modum, I exceed bounds,' as well as absolutely excedo, I go forth.'

(b) Moods.

There are four moods or ways (modi) in which an action or circumstance may be stated:

A. The indicative, which declares a fact, as puer scribit, the boy is writing.'

B. The imperative, which gives a command, as scribe, 'write!' C. The subjunctive, which states a wish or possibility, as scribat puer, may the boy write!' or, 'the boy may write.'

D. The infinitive, by which the mere action or circumstance is described in a general and indefinite manner, as scribere, 'to write,' or 'writing.'

(c) Tenses.

There are five tenses or times (tempora) in the indicative and subjunctive:

I. The present, which indicates that the action is going on at the time of speaking, as amo, 'I am loving.'

II. The imperfect, which indicates that the action was going on at a time specified, as amabam, 'I was loving' at some particular time.

III. The perfect, which declares that the action is past and gone now, as scripsi, 'I have written,' or 'I wrote.'

Obs. There are three forms of the perfect active, which do not, however, differ in signification: (a) reduplicated, as do, de-di; (b) aorist in -si, as scribo, scrip-si; (c) composite, in -vi or -ui from fui, as ama-vi for ama-fui.

IV. The pluperfect, which speaks of an action done and ended at some specified time now past, as scripseram, 'I had written' at some specified time.

V. The future, which indicates some action as coming or about to be, as amabo, 'I shall love.'

(d) Numbers and Persons.

In every one of these tenses there are two numbers, singular and plural; and in each number three persons, corresponding to the personal and indicative pronouns: (1) ego, nos; (2) tu, vos; (3) hic, hi, iste, isti, ille, illi. The regular forms of the personendings in the active singular are: (1) -m, (2) -s, (3) -t; plural: (1) -mus, (2) -tis, (3) -nt. Thus we have, sing. (1) diceba-m, (2) diceba-s, (3) diceba-t; plur. (1) diceba-mus, (2) diceba-tis, (3) dicebant. There is no doubt that these affixes represent the elements of the personal pronouns. But while they are liable to some disfigurement in the active, they are almost undistinguishable in the passive verb. The -m of the first person singular is always lost in the perfect indicative active, and in the future indicative of the first two conjugations. It is occasionally lost in the transition from -im to -o in the perfect subjunctive, and, with the exception of two verbs-sum, 'I am,' and inquam, 'I say'-the first person of the present indicative active always ends in -o. The second person singular always ends in -s, except in the imperative, when it is either omitted or written -to; and in the perfect indicative, when it is written -is-ti, as in amav-is-ti, scrips-is-ti; just as we have amavis-tis, scrips-is-tis, in the second person plural. The syllable -is- is constantly omitted both in these inflexions of the perfect indicative of the fourth conjugation and in the corresponding form of the perfect infinitive in -is-se. Thus we have direxti for direx-is-ti (Virgil, En. VI. 57), accestis for access-is-tis (Virgil, Æn. 1. 201), surrexe for surrex-is-se (Hor. 1 Serm. Ix. 73), traxe for trax-is-se (Virg. Æn. v. 786). The second person plural is changed from -tis to -te, or -tote, in the imperative; and the third person plural of the perfect indicative sometimes substitutes -re for -ru-nt. In the passive voice the affix of the first person singular is invariably wanting. Thus we have not only amo-r as the passive of amo, but amaba-r as the passive of amaba-m, and ame-r as the passive of ame-m. The second person singular substitutes -ris, or more rarely re, for the