VI. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR TO THE MURDER OF Cæsar (b.c. 49-44).

Cicero was now in a very difficult position. It became necessary for every man of importance to take sides; yet he could not see his way clear to join either party. For some time he vacillated, while both Cæsar and Pompey made earnest efforts to secure his support. His great hope was to mediate between them; and, after Pompey had left Italy, he remained behind with this end in view. Finally, however, he decided for Pompey as the champion of the senatorial party, and set out, though with great reluctance, to join him at Dyrrachium (June 11, B.C. 49). In the camp he found things even worse than he had expected, and he gave up the cause of the Republic for lost. On account of illness he was not present at the Battle of Pharsalia (Aug. 9, B.C. 48). After the fate of the contest was decided, he refused to continue the struggle or to follow the adherents of the lost cause to Africa, but returned to Italy (September, B.C. 48), to make terms with the conqueror. He remained at Brundisium until Cæsar's return from Egypt in September, B.C. 47, when he at once sought an interview. Cæsar received him with great kindness and respect, and allowed him once more to return to Rome.

From this time until the assassination of Cæsar in B.C. 44, Cicero remained for the most part in retirement at his Tusculan villa, absorbed in literary pursuits, though in B.C. 46 he delivered his Oration for Marcellus 2 (remarkable for its praise of Cæsar), and his Defence of Ligarius,3 and, in the following year, his Defence of King Deiotarus of Galatia, charged with attempting the murder of Cæsar. The chief literary fruits of this period of leisure were three works on oratory (De Claris Orato

1 See the passages from Cicero's letters quoted in note to The Pardon of Marcellus, sect. 16 (p. 219, l. 4).

2 See pp. 213 ff., below.

3 See pp. 225 ff., below.

ribus, Orator, and De Partitione Oratoria), and several philosophic works (De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, Academica, Tusculanae Quaestiones, De Natura Deorum, De Senectute). Meantime his domestic relations were far from happy. In B.C. 46 he had divorced his wife Terentia and married his rich young ward Publilia, from whom, however, he separated in the following year. In B.C. 45 his daughter Tullia died suddenly. Cicero was tenderly attached to her, and it was in part as a distraction from his grief that he wrote some of the works just mentioned. He now seemed to be thoroughly given over to a life of dignified literary retirement, when the murder of Cæsar (March 15, B.C. 44) once more plunged the state into a condition of anarchy.

VII. FROM THE MURDER OF CÆSAR TO THE DEATH OF CICERO (B.C. 44-43).

Though Cicero had no share in the conspiracy against Cæsar, his sympathy was counted on by Brutus and Cassius, and he hailed the death of the Dictator as the restoration of the republic. But the conspirators had made no adequate provision for carrying on the government, and Cicero soon felt that his hopes were doomed to disappointment. Bitterly chagrined by the disorderly scenes that followed, he retired once more to the country,1 and in July, B.C. 44, set out for a journey to Greece, but, changing his plans in consequence of better news from Rome, he returned to the city in the following month. The chief power was now in the hands of the surviving consul, Mark Antony, whose principal rival was Octavianus (afterwards the Emperor Augustus), Cæsar's adopted son.2 Cicero appeared

1 About this time were written the De Divinatione, De Fato, De Amicitia, and De Officiis.

2 For further details see Introduction to the Fourteenth Philippic, pp. 239-241, below.

again in the Senate and began his celebrated series of orations against Antony with the First Philippic (Sept. 2). Once more he took an active part in politics, apparently assuming his old position as leader, and speaking with all the charm and effectiveness of his earlier days. But he had fallen upon evil times; arms could no longer yield to the gown, and it soon became clear that there could be no peace except by the complete victory of a single aspirant for the supremacy.

Octavianus at first joined with the Senate against Antony, but he soon broke with the constitutional authorities, and, in B.C. 43, formed with Antony and Lepidus the coalition known as the Second Triumvirate. A merciless proscription at once began. Octavianus had every reason to be grateful to Cicero, but he was of a cold and ungenerous nature, and when Antony demanded his death he made no objection. Cicero's name was accordingly placed on the list of proscribed citizens. Cicero was at this time at his Tusculan villa. He made a half-hearted attempt to escape from Italy, but was overtaken near his villa at Formiæ by the soldiers of the triumvirs, and met his death with firmness (Dec. 7, B.C. 43). Antony satisfied his hatred by indignities to the mangled remains.

The career of Cicero is a remarkable example of a sudden rise, followed by an utter collapse and fall. His rise was the natural result of his own ability, industry, and ambition; his fall was as naturally caused by his defects, coupled with his good qualities, a mixture that produced a certain weakness of character. Had he been less timid or less scrupulous, or, on the other hand, had he been more far-sighted, he might have remained on the pedestal to which he was proud to have raised himself and on which he was ambitious to stand. But the times needed a different kind of man, and others, far less worthy, but able and willing to cope with the contending forces in the state, supplanted him. One quality was particularly instrumental both in his rise and his fall. He excelled in forcible

and witty abuse. He dearly loved a bitter jest, and he lived among a people that were constitutionally inclined to abusive language. No doubt it was this talent for invective that made him popular when it happened to be directed in accordance with the people's taste. But it also alienated his friends, and embittered his enemies. He was called a Scurra and a Cynic, and it was perhaps a pun that cost him the favor of Octavianus ; certainly it was his abuse of Antony and Fulvia that cost him his life. But he was the first orator of all time, a literary worker of the rarest gifts, and according to his lights a lover and servant of the state.

The following list gives the titles and subjects of all of Cicero's orations (except fragments) which have survived:

B.C. 81. Pro P. QUINCTIO : Defence of Quinctius in a prosecution by Sex. Nævius, to recover the profits of a partnership in some land in Gaul, inherited from his brother C. Quinctius.

B.C. 80. Pro Sex. ROSCIO AMERINO: Defence of Roscius on a charge of parricide brought by Erucius as professional prosecutor, at the instigation of Chrysogonus.

B.C. 76 (?). Pro Q. ROSCIO COMOEDO: Defence of the actor Roscius from the claim of C. Fannius Chærea to half the profits of certain lands taken as the value of a slave held by them in partnership, and killed by C. Flavius.

B.C. 72 (or 71). Pro M. TULLIO : Plea for damages for an assault made by a rival claimant on Tullius' estate.

B.C. 70. In CAECILIUM ("Divinatio ") : Plea on the technical right of Cicero to conduct the prosecution against Verres.

In C. VERREM: Impeachment of Verres for plunder and oppression in Sicily. Six Orations. — (1) The general charge ("Actio Prima"); (2) De Praetura Urbana: earlier political crimes of Verres; (3) De Jurisdictione Siciliana: his administration in Sicily; (4) De Frumento: peculation and fraud as to the supplies of grain ;

(5) De Signis: the plunder of works of art; (6) De Suppliciis: cruelties of his government.

B.C. 69. Pro M. FONTEIO: Defence of Fonteius' administration of Gaul during Pompey's campaign against Sertorius, about B.C. 75. Pro A. CAECINA: Defence against Æbutius of Cæcina's right to an estate received by inheritance from his wife Cæsennia, widow of a rich money-lender, M. Fulcinius.

B.C. 66. Pro LEGE MANILIA, vel De IMPERIO CN. POMPEI : Defence of the proposal of Manilius to invest Pompey with the command of the war against Mithridates.

Pro A. CLUENTIO HABITO: Defence of Cluentius against the charge of poisoning his stepfather Oppianicus, brought by the younger Oppianicus, instigated by Sassia, the mother of Cluentius.

B.C. 63. De LEGE AGRARIA: Against the Agrarian Law of Rullus. Three orations: the first delivered in the Senate and the others before the people.

Pro C. RABIRIO: Defence of Rabirius on the charge of killing Saturninus, about B.C. 100.

In L. CATILINAM: On the Conspiracy of Catiline. Four the first and last delivered in the Senate, the second and third before the people.

orations

Pro L. MURENA: Defence of Murena on a charge of bribery brought by Sulpicius, the defeated candidate for the consulship. (Following previous orations on the same side by Hortensius and Crassus.)

B.C. 62. Pro P. CORNELIO SULLA: Defence of Sulla from the charge of sharing in Catiline's conspiracy.

Pro A. LICINIO ARCHIA; Defence of the claim of the poet Archias to Roman citizenship.

B.C. 59.

Pro L. VALERIO FLACCo: Defence of Flaccus on a charge of maladministration as proprætor in Asia.

B.C. 57.

POST REDITUM: Thanks for Cicero's recall from exile. Two orations: (1) In Senatu; (2) Ad Quirites.

Pro DOMO SUA: Appeal to the pontifices against the alienation of Cicero's estate by Clodius.

De HARUSPICUM RESPONSIS: Invective against the impieties of Clodius.