Page

40 17. Eorum

41

pars = one part belonging to these: referring to the preceding hi omnes; i. e. the Belgae, Celtae, and Aquitani. 18. Dictum est = we have said: lit. it has been said; i. e. in the first sentence above: nostra Galli appellantur.

19. Continetur it is bounded.

20. Attingit .... Rhenum

=

it extends also to the river

Rhine, on the side of the Sequăni and Helvetii.

21. Galliae here means only that part of the omnis Gallia mentioned in the first line, which was inhabited by the Galli or Celtae. 22. Extremis finibus the farthest confines; i. e. with reference to Rome; hence the northern boundary of Gallia Celtica is

meant.

=

23. Flumen and fluvius denote an ordinary stream, in opp. to a pond and lake; whereas amnis denotes a great and mighty river, in opp. to the sea. In fluvius reference is had more to the material, as an ever-flowing mass: in flumen, more to the flowing, as a permanent state. Död. & Ramsh.

24. Ad

= next to.

CH. II. 1. M. Messala.... coss.

=

in the consulship of

M. Messala and M. Piso. This was in B. C. 61, and three years before Caesar's arrival in Gaul.

2. Regni supreme authority, royalty.

4. Ut exirent: perfacile esse. The twofold construction after persuasit is deserving of special notice. In the first case, ut with the subj. is used, because a purpose, an aim, is intimated: he persuaded them to go forth; i. e. in order that they might go forth; in the second case, the acc. with the inf., because a bare circumstance, a possibility, is stated: he persuaded (= convinced) them that to possess themselves of the sovereignty of all Gaul was very easy.

=

5. Exirent: plural, because in agreement with the idea of plurality implied in civitati. V. K., 81, 4; A. & S., 209, R. 11, (1), (a). 6. Id.... persuasit he persuaded them to this course the more easily on this account. Id stands for the antecedent clause beginning with ut, and hoc refers to the subsequent one beginning with quod.

by natural boundaries: lit. by the nature

7. Loci natura = of their place, or situation.

8. Una ex parte on one side: sc. continentur.

9. Altera

secunda. Common in divisions.

10. Tertia: sc. ex parte.

11. His .... fiebat

=

Page

the consequence of these things was: 41 lit. on account of these things it happened.

i. e. than they wished. The second member of the comparison is

very often suppressed.

13. Homines bellandi cupidi

fare.

14. Pro multitudine

15. Autem

=

=

in proportion to the number. besides, moreover. A particle of transition. 16. Gloria . . . . fortitudinis =renown for war and bravery. 17. Ferocia and ferocitas denote natural and wild courage, of which even the barbarian and wild beast are capable; ferocia, as a feeling, ferocitas, as it shows itself in action; whereas virtus and fortitudo denote a moral courage, of which men only of a higher mould are capable; virtus, that which shows itself in energetic action, and acts on the offensive; fortitudo, that which shows itself in energetic resistance, and acts on the defensive.

CH. III. 1. Quae ... pertinerent

....

=

which related to (i. e. were requisite for) their setting out. The subj. here refers the thought to the minds of the Helvetians: it implies that they (not the writer) thought these things necessary for their departure.

2. Proficiscor denotes the starting-point of a journey, as to set out; whereas iter facio and peregrinor, the duration, as to travel. Iter facio applies to an inland journey, as well as to travelling abroad; but peregrinor supposes that one travels beyond the bounds of his own country; in which case the peregrinatio lasts, even when the point of destination is arrived at, and the iter ended. Död.

3. Pecus, pecoris, is the most general expression for domestic beasts: jumenta and armenta denote the larger sort; as bullocks, asses, horses: pecus, pecudis, the smaller sort; as swine, goats, and especially sheep. In the second place, jumenta denotes beasts used in drawing carriages; as bullocks, asses, horses: armenta, beasts used in ploughing, as oxen horses. As a singular and collective noun, armentum denotes a herd or drove of the larger cattle; while grex denotes a herd or flock of the smaller animals.

....

4. Quam. . . . numerum sementes . . . . maximas = as great a number as possible as great sowings as possible. On this use of quam, see Ec. Cic. XXVII. n. 8.

5. Deligo, eligo. The former means to choose, in the sense 42 of not remaining undecided in one's choice: the latter, in the sense of not taking the first thing that comes.

Page

42

6. Is.... suscepit = he took upon himself. Eas res here refers to all the before-mentioned points: the embassy he undertook himself (sibi); but the other matters he intrusted to the care of others. Schmitz.

7. Ad civitates refers to the proximis civitatibus above.

=

8. Regnum — obtinuerat : had held the supreme power. 9. Ut . . . . occuparet is the direct object, or accusative after persuadet.

=

10. Principatum first place, precedence. Imperium signi fies, properly, the command, which demands implicit obedience; the command, as of an army, &c.; i. e. highest authority, supreme authority, which unites with supreme power irresistible will: principatus, supreme place, precedence: regnum, autocracy, royal dignity, government. Furthermore, the duration of the principatus is limited and variable; whereas the regnum continues through life. Ramsh.

come.

11. Gratus means that which is acceptable only in reference to its value with us, as precious, interesting, and worthy of thanks; but jucundus, in reference to the joy it brings us, as delightful. Gratus refers to the feeling, as wished for; acceptus to its expression, as wel Therefore (V. Freund's Lex., acceptus) acceptus is related to gratus, as the effect to the cause: he who is gratus, i. e. dear, beloved, is on that very account acceptus; i. e. welcome, acceptable. Död. 12. Perfacile. . . . perficere he shows to them that to accomplish their undertakings is very easy to do. Perfacile factu is pleonastic. V. K. § 118, 5. Such cases of pleonasm are not uncommon in the classics.

=

13. Obtenturus esset. The subj. refers the thought to the mind of Orgetorix: it is his explanation of the perfacile esse conatu perficere, and not Caesar's.

15. Regna; i. e. in their respective states: hence the plural. Copiis = resources: including wealth and influence.

16. Regno occupato

=

when the sovereign power shall have

been seized (in their respective states).

17. Tres populos; i. e. the Helvetii, Sequani, and Aedui. Cп. IV. 1. Ea res; i. e. the conspiracy of Orgetorix.

to plead his cause (i. e. to make his de

fence) in chains. Ex vinculis

....

3. Damnatum cremaretur (the order is, oportebat, poenam, ut igni cremaretur, sequi (eum) damnatum) = it was neces sary that the punishment, that he should be burned with fire (i. e.

Page

the punishment of being burnt to death), should befall him, if he 42 were condemned. Ut igni cremaretur is the poenam; which was the usual punishment of traitors among the Gauls and other barbarous nations.

4. 1. Necesse est denotes an obligation of nature and neces sity: oportet an obligation of morality and of honor: opus est, an obligation of prudence. 2. Oportet denotes, objectively, the moral claim which is made upon any man: debeo, subjectively, the moral obligation which any man is under. Död.

5. Caussae dictio generally refers to the defendant.

9. Jus.... exsequi = to maintain its right, to enforce its authority.

CH. V. 1. Ut.. exeant: an explanation of id, quod. Such apparently superfluous explanations are common in Caesar. V. Zumpt's Gr. § 619.

2. Numero ad duodecim == about twelve in number.

3. Privata aedificia buildings which were isolated; i. e. apart from towns and villages.

4. Aedificium is the generic term for buildings of all sorts: domus and aedes (plural) mean a dwelling-house; domus, as the residence and home of a family; aedes, as composed of several apartments. Död.

5. Accendo, incendo, inflammo mean to set on fire: accendo, from without, and at a single point; incendo, from within; inflammo, either from without or from within, but with bright flames. Comburo and cremo mean to burn up, or to consume with fire; comburo, with a glowing heat; cremo, with bright flames. Död.

6. Praeterquam. The most read praeter. Herzog admits that most of the MSS. have praeterquam, although he reads praeter.

7. Domum reditionis. Verbal substantives expressing motion may be constructed with the acc. and abl. of names of places (together with domus and rus), in the same manner as the verbs from which they are derived.

ground provisions for three months;

9. Cum iis. The regular construction would require secum; for when a dependent clause contains the sentiment of the subject,

48

Page

43 of the leading sentence, or his own words, all references to him are expressed by the reflective pronouns sui and suus; but it not unfrequently occurs that a sentiment which should have been expressed in the form of dependence, being the sentiment of the subject, is expressed by the writer as if it were a remark of his own. From the view of the leading subject (i. e. Helvetii), se would be the proper word: from the view of the writer, it must be is. V. Chap. XI: Liberi eorum in servitutem abduci non debuerint, and Chap. XIV: Quod eo invito. This use of is for sui occurs more especially when the dependent clause has its own subject; for then the pronoun se or sibi might be referred to the subject of the dependent clause. V. Chap. VI: Helvetii sese Allobroges vi coacturos existimabant, ut per suos fines eos ire paterentur: also Cic. p. Arch. 10, Sulla malo poetae, quod epigramma in eum fecisset, premium tribui jussit. Zumpt's Gram § 550.

....

=

10. Receptos . . . . adsciscunt they receive and join to themselves as allies. The Latin often employs a participle and verb, when we should use two verbs connected by a conjunction. CH. VI. 1. Quibus itineribus . . possent - by which routes they could go forth from home. The repetition of the noun to which the relative refers is more common in Caesar than in any other classical writer.

4. Nuper. About two years before Caesar's entrance into Gaul. 5. Pertinet = extends.

6. Bono animo well disposed: lit. of a good mind.

7. Viderentur. The sentiment of the Helvetii. The indic. would refer the statement to the mind of Caesar.

=

8. A. d. v. Kal. Aprilis, for ante diem quintum Kalendas Aprilis the fifth day before the Kalends of April; i. e. the 28th of March, B. C. 58. In explanation of the acc. in this phrase, Zumpt says (V. Gram. §§ 868, 869): "This peculiarity, instead of the correct die quinto ante Kalendas, cannot be explained otherwise than by the supposition that ante changed its place, and that afterward the abl. was changed into the acc., as if it were dependent on ante, while the real acc., Kalendas, remained unchanged. The expression ante diem must be considered as an indeclinable substantive, since we often find it preceded by prepositions which govern the acc. or abl." Aprilis in the above phrase is properly an adjective in agreement with Kalendas: the ending is for es according to K. § 37, R. 3, and A. and S. 114, 2.