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they follow. When a porter at a railway-station cries BY'K LEAVE, he may understand the analysis of the words he uses; and then he is speaking logically and grammatically, though elliptically. If he does not understand the construction of the phrase he uses, and if he is quite ignorant how much is implied and left unsaid, he merely uses a conventional cry as an interjection. A cry of this sort, uttered as a conglomerate whole, where the mind makes no analysis, is, as far as the speaker is concerned, an interjection. We cannot doubt that this is the case in those instances where we hear it uttered as follows: 'By'r leave, if you please!' It is plain in this instance that the speaker understands the latter clause, but does not understand the former-for, if he did, he would feel the latter to be superfluous.

207. Fudge. Isaac Disraeli, in his Curiosities of Literature, vol. iii., quotes a pamphlet of the date 1700, to shew that this interjection has sprung from a man's name.

There was, sir, in our time, one Captain Fudge, commander of a merchantman, who, upon his return from a voyage, how ill-fraught soever his ship was, always brought home his owners a good cargo of lies; so much that now aboard ship, the sailors when they hear a great lie told, cry out 'You fudge it.'

He has added a circumstance which is of great use for the illustration of this section:-'that recently at the bar, in a court of law, its precise meaning perplexed plaintiff and defendant, and their counsel.' It is of the very nature of an interjection, that it eludes the meshes of a definition.

But it was Goldsmith who first gave this interjection a literary currency. Mr. Forster, speaking of The Vicar of Wakefield, recognises the elasticity of the interjectional function:

There never was a book in which indulgence and charity made virtue look so lustrous. Nobody is strait-laced; if we except Miss Carolina Wilhelmina Amelia Skeggs, whose pretensions are summed up in Burchell's noble monosyllable.

'Virtue, my dear Lady Blarney, virtue is worth any price; but where is that to be found?'

'Fudge.'

208. Hail. Here we have the case of an adjective which has become an interjection. It is a very old salutation, being found not only in Anglo-Saxon, but also in Old High Dutch. In the early examples it always appears grammatically as an adjective of health joined with the verb 'to be' in the imperative. In the Saxon Version of the Gospels, Luke i. 28, 'Hal wes du,' Hale be thou! and in the plural, Matt. xxviii. 9, 'Hale wese ge,' Hale be ye!

All hail. This also was at first purely adjectival, as in the following from Layamon, which is quoted and translated above, 47:

al hal me makien

mid haleweige drenchen.

By the sixteenth century this 'all hail!' had become a worshipful salutation, and having lost all construction, was completely interjectionalised.

Did they not sometime cry All hayle to me?

Shakspeare, Richard II, iv. 1.

The pronunciation is iambic; the All being enclitic, and the stress on hayle, as if the whole were a disyllable. We sometimes hear it otherwise uttered in Matthew xxviii. 9, as if All meant omnes, távτes; instead of being merely adverbial, omnino, пávτws. It does not indeed in that place represent any separate word at all, the original being simply Xaípere. In the Vulgate it is Avete; and this is rendered by Wiclif Heil ze. Tyndal was the first who introduced this All hayle into the English version. The Geneva translators substituted for it God saue you. 204.

209. A remarkable example of a phrase which has passed into the interjectional state is Hallelujah, or in its Greek

aspect Alleluia; meaning, Praise ye the Lord. This is a world-wide interjection of religious fervour; and it may safely be said of those who use it, that not one in a thousand understands it grammatically, or misunderstands it interjectionally.

210. But the example which holds the most conspicuous historical position, is the great congregational interjection of faith, the universal response of the Christian Church as well as of the Hebrew Synagogue, Amen. This word, at first in Hebrew a verbal adjective, and thence an affirmative adverb, signifying verily, truly, yea, was used in the early times of the Jewish Church (Deut. xxvii. 15; Ps. xli. 14, lxxii. 19, lxxxix. 53) for the people's response: 'and let the people say AMEN.' It was continued from the first in the Christian community, as we know from 1 Cor. xiv. 16, and is still in use in every body of Christians. For the most part it has been preserved in its original Hebrew form of AMEN; but the French Protestants have substituted for it a translation in the vulgar tongue, and they do not respond with AMEN, but with Ainsi-soit-il, So be it'. They have by this change limited this ancient interjection to one of its several functions. For in this modern form it is only adapted to be a response to prayer, or the expression of some desire.

There are other sorts of assent and affirmation for which AMEN is available, besides that single one of desire or aspiration. In medieval wills it was put at the head of the document In the name of God AMEN. This was a protestation of earnestness on the part of the testator, and a claim on all whom it might concern to respect his dispositions.

In Jeremiah xxviii. 6 we find one AMEN delivered by the

1 I am informed that the Freemasons have a time-honoured rendering of their own: So mote it be!

prophet with the wishful meaning only, while there is an ominous reserve of assent.

In the Commination Service, the Amens to the denunciations are not expressions of desire that evil may overtake the wicked, but the solemn acknowledgment of a liability to which they are subject; as the preliminary instruction sets forth the intent wherefore 'ye should answer to every sentence, Amen.' In this place Amen cannot be rendered by So be it; and the attempt to substitute for it any grammatical phrase must rob it of some of its symbolic freedom. This is the case with all interjections, and it is of the essence of an interjection that it should be so.

CHAPTER IV.

OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

211. PHILOLOGY seeks to penetrate into the Nature of language: Grammar is concerned only with its literary Habits.

Grammatical analysis is the dissection of speech as the instrument of literature. The student may help himself to remember this by observing that Grammar Grammatice (ypaμparin) is derived from the Greek word for literature, γράμματα.

The chief result of grammar, and the exponent of grammatical analysis, is the doctrine of the Parts of Speech. All the words which combine to make up structural language are classified in this systematic division. But the philologer should observe that the quality of words, whereby they are so distinguished and divided into Parts of Speech, is a habit, and not anything innate or grounded in the nature of the words. We shall endeavour to make this plain.

Grammar analyzes language in order to ascertain the conditions on which the faculty of expression is dependent, and also to gain more control over that faculty. This object limits the range of grammatical enquiry. The grammarian makes a certain number of groups to which he can refer any word, and then he forms rules in which he legislates class-wise for the words so grouped.

We must here assume that the ordinary grammatical

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