4th. Motion through or by a place; as, quà?"which way?" h

way;" alià, "another way;" &c.

this

2. ADVERBS OF TIME; as, nunc, "now" hodie, "to-day;" tum, 'then;" nuper, “lately;" mox, " by and by;" semper, "always;" &c.

3. ADVERBS OF QUANTITY; as, părum, "little;" multum, “much;” pêne, "almost;" quanto, "how much;" &c.

4. ADVERBS OF QUALITY; as, bène, “well;” măle, “ ill;” fortiter, “ bravely;" and many others derived from adjectives or participles.

5. ADVERBS OF MANNER (viz. of action or condition), including those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, granting, forbidding, in terrogation, doubt, contingency, &c.; as, profecto, "truly;" non, haud, "not" cur? “ why ?” quâre, “wherefore,” &c.

6. ADVERBS OF RELATION, or such as express circumstances of comparison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation, &c.; as, potius, “rather," ita, sic, "so;" simul, "together;" seorsum, "apart;" &c.

IL DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF ADVERBS.

231.-The Simple and Primitive adverbs are but few in number; as, non, "not;" ibi, "there;" mox, "presently;" tunc, "then;" &c.

232.-The Derivative adverbs are numerous, and are formed in the following manner:

1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and second declensions, generally end in e; as, alte, "highly," from altus; libère, "freely," from liber. Sometimes they end in o, um, or ter; as, tūto, safely," from tūtus; tantum, “so much," from tantus; dūre and duriter, “hardly,” from dūrus.

2. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the third declension generally end in ter; as, feliciter, "happily," from felix. Sometimes in e; as, facile, easily," from facilis; and one ends in o, namely, omnino, “altogether," from omnis.

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The neuter gender of adjectives is often used adverbially; as, rěcens, "recently," for recenter; torva, “sternly," for torve; dulce, "sweetly," for dulciter; thus, Horace, dulce ridens, "sweetly smiling;" &c.

3. Adverbs derived from nouns generally end in im or itus; as, virītim,

'man by man," from vir; funditus, “ from the ground," from fundus.

Many adverbs in im, however, are derived from participles; as, sensim, "by degrees," from sensus (sentio, “I perceive"). A few in itus are derived from adjectives; as, antiquitus, from antiquus ; &c.

4. Adverbs are formed by composition in various ways; two or more words forming a phrase, or part of a sentence, and syntactically combined, being formed into one word; as, hodie, "to-day," from hoc die; scilicet, 'truly," from scire licet; quomodo, "how," from quo modo; quamobrem, "wherefore," from quam ob rem; &c.

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Obs. 1. The adverb is not an essential part of speech. It only serves to express in one word what would otherwise have required two or more; as, sapienter, "wisely," for cum sapientia; semper, "always," for in omni tempore; &c. Indeed, similar phrases, used to express circumstances of time, place, manner, order, and the like, constitute what may be called adverbial phrases, or clauses, though the words of which they consist are to be parsed separately, and combined according to the rules of syntax.

Obs. 2. Some adverbs are used to denote time, place, or order, according as the connection requires; as, ubi, "where," or "when;" inde, "from that place," "from that time," "after that," "next;" hactenus, “hitherto,” “thus far," applied indifferently to place, time, or order.

Obs. 3. Some adverbs of time, apply indifferently to the past, the present, or the future; as jam, "already," "now," "by and by;" ōlim, "long ago," "sometime hereafter." Some adverbs of place are equally various in their use; as, esse peregrè, "to be abroad;" ire peregrè, "to go abroad;" redire peregrè, "to return from abroad."

III. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

233.-Adverbs derived from adjectives are generally compared like their primitives. The positive commonly ends in e, o, or ter; the comparative, in ius; and the superlative, in ime; as,

234.-The following adverbs are compared irregularly, like the ad

jectives from which they are derived; viz

Positive wanting.

Măgis, more, maxime; ocius, more swiftly, ocissime; prius, sooner primo or prīmum; potius, rather, potissimum.

Comparative wanting.

Pêne, almost, penissime; nuper, lately, nuperrime; nove or noviter newly, novissime; merito, deservedly, meritissime.

Superlative wanting.

Sătis, enough, satius; secus, otherwise, secius.

Two Adverbs not derived from adjectives are also compared; namely, diu, "long," diutius, diutissime; and sæpe, "often," sæpius, sæpissime.

§ 90. PREPOSITIONS.

235.-A PREPOSITION is a word which shows the relation between a noun or pronoun following it, and some other word in the sentence.

The preposition, as its name imports, stands before the noun or pronoun which it governs.-In Latin,

1. Twenty-eight Prepositions govern the Accusative; viz:

Ad, to, at, towards.

Apud, at, near, with.

or rank).

Inter, between, among, during.
Intra, within.

Ante, before (of time, place, Juxta, near, beside.

Adversus,

Adversum,
Circa,

} against, towards.

Circum, around, about.

Circiter, about (of time indefinitely).

Cis,

Citra,}

on this side, within.

Contra, against, opposite.
Erga, towards.

Extra, beyond, out of.
Infra, beneath.

3. Four Prepositions govern the Accusative or Ablative; viz:

With the Accusative :

into, towards, against.

, under (motion to),

about.

Super, above, over, beyond.
Subter, under.

With the Ablative :

In, upon, in, among.

Sub, under (motion or rest),
at, near.

Super, upon, concerning.
Subter, under.

236.-OBSERVATIONS.

1. A is used before consonants; ab, before vowels, and h, j, r, s, and sometimes l; abs, before t and qu. E is used before consonants.

2. Tenus is placed after its case; and also cum, when joined to me, te, se, quo, qui, and quibus; as, mecum, &c. Clam sometimes governs the accusative; as, clam patre, or patrem.

3. The adverbs pròpe, “nigh;” usque," as far as;" versus, "towards," are often followed by an accusative governed by ad understood, and sometimes expressed. So also procul, “ far," is followed by the ablative governed by a, understood.

4. Prepositions not followed by their case, are to be regarded as adverbs.

5. Prepositions are sometimes combined; as, ex adversus eum locum. Cro. In ante diem, "till the day." Id. Ex ante diem, "from the day." But prepositions compounded together, commonly become adverbs or conjunctions; as, propălam, protinus, insuper, &c.

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6. A preposition with its case is often used as an adverbial phrase; as, ex animo, "earnestly;" ex adverso, " opposite ;" ex improviso, "suddenly," extempore, off-hand." Quamobrem (quam ob rem), "wherefore;" quapropter (quæ propter); quocirca (quod circa), &c.

7. Prepositions are either primitive; as, ad, apud, ante, &c.; or deriva tive; as, adversum, from the adjective adversus; secundum, from secundus. They are either simple; as, ad, ante, abs; or compound; as, ex adversum. absque; or inseparable; as, am, di or dis, &c. 239–2.

§ 91. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION.

237.-1. Prepositions are often prefixed to other words, especially to verbs, the meaning of which they generally modify by their own; thus,

238.—1. A, ab, abs, “ from ;” as, duco, “I lead;” abduco, "I lead away," or "from;" sometimes it denotes privation; as, āmens, “mad.”

2. Ad, "to;" as, adduco, "I lead to." It is sometimes intensive; as, adămo, “I love greatly"

3. De, in composition generally signifies "downward;" as, descendo, "I go down;" decido, “I fall down.” Sometimes it is intensive; as, deămo, "I love greatly;" sometimes it denotes privation; as, despèro, "I despair;" demens, "mad."

4. E or ex, "out of," "from;" as, exeo, "I go out." It is sometimes intensive; as, exōro, "I beg earnestly;" sometimes privative; as, exsanguis, "pale ;" exspes, " hopeless."

5. In, “ into,” “ in," " against," as, infèro, “I bring in" irruo, “I rush against or upon." With adjectives it generally reverses the signification · as, infīdus, “ unfaithful;” indignus, "unworthy." In some compounds, it has contrary significations, according as they are participles or adjectives as, invocātus," called upon;""not called upon;" immutatus, "changed," unchanged."

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6. Per, "through," is commonly intensive, especially with adjectives; as, perfacilis, "very easy." With quam, it is strongly intensive; as, per quam facilis, " exceedingly easy." In perfidus, "perfidious," it is negative.

7. Præ, "before," with adjectives is intensive; as, præclarus, "very clear," "very renowned."

8. Pro denotes "forth;" as, produco, " I lead forth.”

9. Sub often diminishes the signification; as, rideo, "I laugh;" subrideo, "I smile" albus, "white" subalbus, "whitish." Sometimes it denotes motion upwards; as, subrīgo, “I raise up;" sometimes concealment; a rapio, "I take;" subripio, "I take secretly," "I steal."

Note.-Prepositions frequently seem to add nothing to the words, with which they are compounded.

Obs. 1. In combining with the simple word, some prepositions frequently undergo a change of form, chiefly for the sake of euphony, for which see

215-5.