435.- 115. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE.

1. The accusative, in Latin, is used to express the immediate object of a transitive active verb,-or, in other words, that on which its action is exerted, and which is affected by it.

2. It is used to express the object to which something tends or relates, in which sense it is governed by a preposition, expressed or understood. When used to express the remote object of a transitive verb, or certain relations of measure, distance, time, and place, the preposition is usually omitted.

§ 116. ACCUSATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 436.-RULE XX. A transitive verb in the active voice, governs the accusative; as,

437.-I. A transitive deponent verb governs the accusative; as,

Reverère parentes,'

Reverence your parents.

438.-II. An intransitive verb may govern a noun of kindred signification, in the accusative; as, To fight a battle.

Pugnare pugnam,

439.-EXPLANATION.—These rules apply to all verbs which have an Accusative as their immediate object; and that accusative may be any thing used substantively, whether it be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence. Intransitives under Rule II. are often followed by the ablative, with a preposition expressed or understood; as, Ire (in) itinere, gaudere (cum) gaudio, &c.

440.-Obs. 1. Verbs signifying to name, choose, reckon, constitute, and the like, besides the accusative of the object, take also the accusative of the name, office, character, &c., ascribed to it; as, urbem Romam vocăvit, "he called the city Rome." All such verbs, in the passive, have the same case after as before them. (320).

441.-Obs. 2. Verbs commonly intransitive, are sometimes used in a

transitive sense, and are therefore followed by an accusative under this

rule; thus,

TRANSITIVE.

Abhorrère fămam, to dread infamy.
Abolère monumenta, to abolish, &c.
Declinare ictum, to avoid a blow.
Laborare arma, to forge arms.
Morări iter, to stop.

INTRANSITIVE.

Abhorrere a litibus, to be averse, &a
Memoria abolevit, memory failed.
Declinare loco, to remove from, &c
Laborare morbo, to be ill.
Morari in urbe, to stay in the city.

To these may be added horrère, furère, vivère, ludère; and verbs siguifying to taste of, to smell of, &c.; as, horrere aliquid; furère opus cædis; Bacchanalia vivunt; ludere pila; redolēre vīnum; pastillos Rufillus õlet, Gorgonius hircum; mella herbam sapiunt; unguenta terram sapiunt.

442.-Obs. 3. The accusative, after many intransitive verbs, depends on a preposition understood; as, Morientem nomine clamat; "Meas queror fortunas; Num id lacrymat virgo; Quicquid delirant règes, plectuntur Achivi; Stygias juravimus undas; Maria ambulavisset, terram navigasset, VIRG.; Pascuntur vero sylvas, Id.; Ire exsequias; Ibo amicam meam, PLAUT.; &c. In these, and similar sentences, the prepositions ob, propter, circa, per, ad, in, &c., may be supplied.

This construction of intransitive verbs is most common with the neuter accusatives id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, illud, tantum, quantum, hoc, multa, alia, pauca, &c.

443. Obs. 4. The accusative, after many verbs, depends on a preposition with which they are compounded. This is the.

case,

1st. With intransitive verbs; as, Gentes quæ măre illud adjacent, "the nations which border upon that sea." So, ineunt prælium, adire provinciam, transcurrère măre, alloquor te, &c. Thus compounded, many verbs seem to become transitive in sense, and so govern the accusative by this rule. In general, however, they fall * under Rule LII.

2d. With transitive verbs, in which case two accusatives follow-one governed by the verb, and another by the preposition; as, Omnem equitatum pontem transducit, "He leads all the cavalry over the bridge;"-Hellespontum copias trajecit. Here also the second accusative falls under Rule LII.

Note 1.-After most verbs, however, compounded with prepositions governing the accusative, the preposition is repeated before it; as, Cæsar se ad neminem adjunxit.

444.-Obs. 5. a. The accusative after a transitive verb, especially if a reflexive pronoun, or something indefinite or easily supplied, is some times understood; as, tum prora avertit, scil. se; flumina præcipitant, scil. se; faciam vitulâ, scil. sacra; bène fecit Silius, scil. hoc.

b. Sometimes the verb which governs the accusative is omitted, espe cially in rapid or animated discourse; thus, the interrogative quid often stands alone for quid ais? quid censes? or the like. So also, quid vero? quid igitur? quid ergo? quid enim? Quid quod, commonly rendered

nay," "nay even," "but now," "moreover," may b. received thus, Quid dicam de eo quòd. With quid multa? quid plura? ne multa, ne plura, scil. verba, supply dicam; as, Quid dicam multa (vería): But, quid postea § quid tum? and the like, may be regarded as the nominative to sequitur understood; and the phrase quid ita? may be resolved by supplying the preceding verb or some part of facio.

445.-Obs. 6. RULE. The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence (439), is often used as the object of a transitive verb. instead of the accusative (665 and 670, Note); as,

Da mihi fallère,

Cupio me esse clementem, Statuerunt ut nāves conscendèrent.

Give me to deceive.
I desire to be gentle.

They determined that they would
embark.

Note 2.-In such constructions, the subject of the clause is sometimes, by a Greek idiom, put in the accusative as the object of the verb; as, Nôsti Marcellum, quam tardus sit; instead of Nosti quam tardus Marcellus sit. So, illum ut vivat optant, instead of ut ille vivat optant; or illum vivère optant. Gr. Gram., § 150, Obs. 4.

446.-Obs. 7. A few cases occur in which the accusative is put after a noun derived from a verb, or the verbal adjectives in bundus; as, Quid tibi huc receptio ad te est meum virum? "Wherefore do you receive my husband hither to you?" PLAUT. Quid tibi hanc additio est. Id. Vitabundus castra. Liv.

447.-Obs. 8. Many verbs considered transitive in Latin, are intransitive in English, and must have a preposition supplied in translating; as, Ut caveret me, "That he should beware of me." On the other hand, many intransitive verbs in Latin, i. e. verbs which do not take an accusa tive after them, are rendered into English by transitive verbs; as, Fortuna fuvet fortibus, "Fortune favors the brave."

N. B. For the Accusative governed by Recordor, &c., see 373;--with another accusative, 508;--governed by prepositions, 602, 607, 608, 613;--denoting time, 565, R. XLI.;-place, 553;-measure or distance, 573; in exclamations, 451.

§ 117. CONSTRUCTION OF THE VOCATIVE. 448.-The vocative is used to designate the person or thing addressed, bnt forms no part of the proposition with which it stands; and it is used either with, or without, an interjection.

449.-RULE XXI. The interjections O, heu, and proh, are construed with the vocative; as,

450.-To these, may be added other interjections of calling or addressing; as, ah, au, ehem, eheu, eho, eja, hem, heus, hui, io, ohe, and vah, which are often followed by the vocative: as, Heus Syre, Ohe libelle.

451.--Obs. 1. In exclamations, the person or thing wondered at, is put in the accusative, either with or without an interjection; as, Me miserum, or, Heu me misèrum, “Ah, wretch that I am!"-sometimes in the nomina tive; as, O vir fortis atque amicus, TER.; Audi tu, populus Romānus, Liv. 452. Obs. 2. The vocative is sometimes omitted, while a genitive depending upon it remains; as, O misèræ gentis, sc. homines, LUCAN.

453. Obs. 3. The interjections Hei and Væ, govern the dative; as, Hei mihi, "Ah me!" Væ vobis," Woe to you!"

454.-Obs. 4. Ecce and en, usually take the nominative; as, Ecce nova turba atque rixa. En ego.

§ 118. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ABLATIVE. 455.-The ablative is used in Latin generally, to express that from which something is separated or taken; or, as that by or with which, something is done, or exists. It is governed by nouns, adjectives, verbs, and prepositions, and also is used to express various relations of measure, distance, time, and place, &c.

THE ABLATIVE AFTER NOUNS.

456.-RULE XXII. Opus and usus, signifying need, require the ablative; as,

Est opus pecuniâ,
Nunc usus viribus,

There is need of money.

Now, there is need of strength.

457.-EXPLANATION.-The ablative, after these nouns, is probably governed by a preposition, such as pro, understood. In this sense, they are used only with the verb sum, of which opus is sometimes the subject, and sometimes the predicate; ūsus, the subject only.

OBSERVATIONS.

458.-Obs. 1. Opus, in the predicate, is commonly used as an inde clinable adjective, in which case it rarely has the ablative; as, Dux nōbis opus est, "We need a general," Cic. So, Dices nummos mihi opus esse Cic.; Nobis exempla opus sunt, Cic. In these examples, õpus, as an in declinable adjective, agrees with dux, nummos, exempla, by Rule II. This construction is most common with neuter adjectives and pronouns, and is always used with those denoting quantity; as, Quod non opus est, asse carum est. Cato apud Sen.

459.--Obs. 2. Opus and usus are often joined with the perfect parti ciple; as, opus maturato, "need of haste;" opus consulto, "need of deliberation," ūsus facto, "need of action." The participle has sometimes a

substantive joined with it after opus; as, Mihi opus fuit Hirtio con wento, "It behoved me to meet with Hirtius," Cic. Sometimes the supine is joined with it; as, Ita dictu õpus est, TER.

460.-Obs. 3. Opus is often followed by the infinitive, or by the subjunctive with ut; as, Siquid forte, quod opus sit sciri, Cia. Nunc tibi opus est, ægram ut te adsimiles, PLAUT. Sometimes it is absolutely without a case, or with a case understood; as, Sic opus est; Si õpus est.

461.-Exc. Opus and usus are sometimes followed by the genitive, by Rule VI.; as, Argenti opus fuit, "There was need of money;" sometimes by an accusative, in which case an infinitive is probably understood; as, Puèro opus est cibum; scil. habère, PLAUT.

§ 119. ABLATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. [For the ablative governed by adjectives of plenty or want, see 361.] 462.-RULE XXIII. These adjectives dignus, indignus, contentus, præditus, captus, and fretus; also the participles natus, sătus, ortus, editus, and the like, denoting origin, govern the ablative; as,

Dignus honore,
Contentus parvo,
Præditus virtute,
Captus oculis,

Frētus viribus,

Ortus regibus,

Worthy of honor.
Content with little.
Endued with virtue.
Blind (injured in his eyes).
Trusting in his strength.
Descended from kings.

463.-EXPLANATION.-The ablative, after these adjectives and participles, is governed by some preposition understood; as, cum, de, e, ex, in, &c. Sometimes it is expressed; as, Ortus ex concubina, Sallust.

464.--Obs. 1. Instead of the ablative, these adjectives often take an infinitive, or a subjunctive clause with qui, or ut; as, Dignus amāri, VIRG.; Dignus qui impèret, Cic.; Non sum dignus, ut figam pa lum in parietem, PLAUT.

465.--Exc. Dignus, indignus, and contentus, are sometimes followed by the genitive; as, Dignus avōrum, VIRG. For the ablative governed by adjectives of plenty or want, see 361.

120.--THE ABLATIVE WITH THE COMPARATIVE

DEGREE.

466.--REM. When two objects are compared by means of the compa rative degree, a conjunction, such as, quam, ac, atque, &c., signifying "than," is sometimes expressed, and sometimes omitted. In the first, the