the verb. As, therefore, the rules which apply to the construction of nouns and verbs, apply to the gerund, it is unnecessary to repeat them here. All that is peculiar to the construction of the gerund, is comprised in the following Rules and Observations.

ge

699.-RULE LXI.-The verb Est with the rund for its subject, implies necessity, and governs the dative of the doer; as,

Nom. Legendum est mihi,
Nom. Moriendum est omnibus,
Acc. Scio moriendum esse mihi,

I must read, lit. reading is to me.
All must die, lit. dying is to all.
I know that I must die, lit. that dying
is to me.

700.-EXPLANATION. The dative here is governed by est, according to R. II (394.) In the first and second examples, the gerund in the nominative is the subject of est, which agrees with it by R. IV. (303.) In the third example, the gerund is in the accusative, and the subject of esse, by R. LVIII. (671.) The necessity implied in this construction is stronger than that expressed by the participle in dus, the latter implying only that a thing is to be done, or should be done,—the former that it must be done. See 214-9.

701. Obs. 1. The dative of the doer in this construction is often understood; as, Orandum est (t i bi) ut sit sāna mens in corpore sāno. 702. Obs. 2. The gerund in di, of the genitive case, is governed by substantives or adjectives; as,

Tempus legendi,
Cupidus discendi,

Time of reading, 332.
Desirous of learning, 349.

703.- Obs. 3. The gerund in do, of the dative case, is gov erned by adjectives, signifying usefulness or fitness; as,

Charta utilis scribendo,

Paper used for writing, 382.

Sometimes it is governed by verbs; as, adesse scribendo. Cão. Ap. tat ha ben do ensem. VIRG. Is finis censendo factus est.

704.—Obs. 4. The gerund in dum, of the accusative case,

native of the gerund, is really the neuter of the participle in dus, in a passive sense, joined with the verb est used impersonally. Thus, studendum est mihi, they think should be literally rendered "it is to be studied by me." Though this solution is plausible, and would seem to answer in many cases, there are others in which we, at least, cannot see how it could be applied. It cannot be applied unless the participle in dus in all cases has, or may have, a passive sense; but of this there is no evidence, and facts are opposed to it. Thus, it will hardly be admitted as a literal rendering of moriendum est omnibus, to say "it is to be died by all," and it certainly cannot be so used in those examples in which it governs the same case that it does in its active sense; thus, utrum pace nobis an bello es:et utendum. CIC. Quum suo cuique Judicio utendum sit. Indeed, the fact that gerunds, in all cases, do govern the case of their own verb, seems to be opposed to their being considered as parts of the passive participle in dus.

when not the subject of the infinitive, is governed by the prepositions, ad, inter, &c.; as,

705.-Obs. 5. The gerund in do, of the ablative case, is governed by the prepositions a, ab, de, e, ex, or in; as,

Pana a peccando absterret, Punishment frightens from sinning. Or, without a preposition, as the ablative of manner, or cause; as,

Memoria excolendo augetur, The memory is improved by exercising it. Defessus sum ambulando, I am wearied with walking.

706. Obs. 6. The gerund, as a verbal noun, resembles the infinitive, and is often put for it; as, Est tempus legendi, or legère. The gerund, however, is never joined with an adjective, and is sometimes taken in a passive sense; as, Cum Tisidium vocaretur ad imperandum—“ to receive orders;" urit videndo,-" by being seen,” i. e. dum vidētur.

CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDIVES.

707.-LXII. Gerunds governing the accusative, are elegantly turned into gerundives in dus, which, with the sense of the gerund, instead of governing, agree with their substantive in gender, number, and case; as,

708.-EXPLANATION.-This rule applies only to the oblique cases. In the first of these examples, the Gerund petendi is governed in the genitive by tempus according to Rule VI., 332, and then governs pacem in the accusative by Rule XX., 486. In the gerundive form, the genitive pācis is governed by tempus, by Rule VI., 332, and the gerundive petenda agrees with it by Rule II., 263. In the gerund form, the gerund is governed, and then governs the noun. In the gerundive form, the noun is governed, and then the gerundive agrees with it by R. II. In order to change from the gerund to the gerundive, it is necessary only to change the accusative of the noun, into the case of the gerund, and then make the gerundive agree with it; and from the gerundive to the gerund, change the noun into the accusative, and the gerundive into the gerund, in the same case as before.

The following are examples to be changed:

GEN. Consilia urbis delendæ ;-civium trucidandōrum ;--nominis Romāni extinguendi

DAT.

Perpetiendo labori idoneus ;--capessendo reipublicæ habīlis ;—nātus miserias ferendo;-ad miserias ferendas;-onĕri ferendo aptus. Ad defendendam Rōmam ;-ab oppugnando Capuam ;-ad collocandum signa;-in diripiendis castris.

Acc. and AB.

709.-Obs. 7. Instead of the gerundive in the genitive plural, to agree with a noun in that case, the gerund in the genitive singular is often retained, probably for the sake of Euphony; as, Fuit exemplorum eligendi potestas. Cic. Facultas agrorum condonandi; sui (pl.) condonandi, instead of eligendorum, condonandōrum. Also, sometimes when the noun is singular and feminine; as, ejus (fem.) videndi cupidus. TER.

710.-Obs. 8. The gerunds of verbs, which do not govern the accuJative, are never changed into the gerundive, except those of medeor, utor, abútor, fruor, fungor, and potior; as, spes potiundi urbe, or potiundæ urbis : but we always say, Cupidus subveniendi tibi, never tui.

711.-Obs. 9. After esse, fore, the gerund and the gerundive in the genitive (364), are used, to express tendency to a thing, or serving a certain purpose; as, Regium imperium initio conservandæ libertatis, atque augendæ reipublicæ fuerat. SALL., Cat. VI., "The regal government at first had served the purpose of preserving liberty, and increasing the state," [Aiebant] e a prodendi imperii Romani, tradende Hannibali victoria esse,"They said that these things had a tendency to betray the Roman government, and to give the victory to Hannibal." LIv. Quum animadvertisset pleraque dissolvendārum religiōnum esse, “When he had perceived that most of them tended to destroy religion.” Liv.

148. CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES.

1. The Supine in UM.

712.-RULE LXIII. The supine in um is put after a verb of motion; as,

Abiit deambulatum,

He hath gone to walk.

So, Ducere cohortes prædatum. Liv. Nunc venis irrīsum dominum? Quod in rem tuam optimum factu arbitror, te id admonitum venio. PLAUT.

713. Obs. 1. The supine in um is elegantly joined with the verb eo, to express the signification of any verb more strongly; as, it se perditum, the same with id ăgit, or operam dat, ut se perdat, "he is bent on his own destruction." TER. So, ut perditum eātis ut perdātis; ereptum_eunt,= eripiunt. SALL. This supine with īri, taken impersonally, supplies the place of the future infinitive passive; as, an credebas illam sine tud opera iri deductum domum? Which may be thus resolved; an credebas iri (a te, or ab aliquo) deductum (i. e. ad deducendum) illam dỡmum. TER. The supine here may be considered as a verbal substantive governing the accusative, like the gerund.

714.-Obs. 2. The supine in um is put after cther verbs besides those of motion; as, dedit filiam nuptum; cantatum provocimus. TER. Rovocatus defensum patriam; divisit copias hiematum. NEP.

715.--Obs. 3. The meaning of this supine may be expressed by several other parts of the verb; as, vēnit oratum opem: or 1. Vēnit opem orandi causá, or opis or andæ. 2. Venit ad orandum opem, or ad orandam špem.

2. The Supine in v.

716.-RULE LXIV. The supine in u is put after an adjective noun; as,

Facile dictu,

Easy to tell, or to be told. So, nihil dictu fœdum, visuque, hæc limina tangat, intra quæ puer est. Juv. Difficilis res est inventu vērus amicus;-fas est, or nefas est dictu;— opus est scitu. CIC.

717.-Obs. 4. The supine in u, being used in a passive sense, hardly ever governs any case. It is sometimes, especially in old writers, put after verbs of motion; as, nunc obsonātu redeo," from getting provisions." PLAUT. Primus cubitu surgat (villicus), postremus cubitum eat, "let the overseer be the first to rise, and the last to go to bed." CATO.

718. Obs. 5. This supine may be rendered by the infinitive or gerund with the preposition ad; as, difficile cognitu, cognosci, or ad cognoscendum; res facilis ad credendum. Cic.

719. Obs. 6. The supines being nothing else but verbal nouns of the fourth declension, used only in the accusative and ablative singular, are governed in these cases by prepositions understood;-the supine in um, by the preposition ad; and the supine in u, by the preposition in.

§ 149. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 720.-RULE LXV. The conjunctions et, ac, atque, nec, nèque, aut, vel, and some others, couple similar cases and moods; as,

Honora patrem et matrem,
Nec legit nec scribit,

Honor father and mother.
He neither reads nor writes.

721.-EXPLANATION.-Words coupled by a conjunction under this Kule, are in the same construction, i. e. two nominatives coupled together are the subject of the same verb, or predicates of the same subject; and nouns coupled together in the oblique cases are governed by the same word, as in the first example. Verus thus coupled have the same subject or nominative, as in the second example.

722.-Obs. 1. The copulative conjunctions under this Ruie are such as et, ac, atque, etiam, que; the disjunctives nec, nèque, aut, vel, seu, sive, ve, nève, neu; also quam, præterquam, nisi, an, nempe, quamvis, necdum, sed, autem, vērum, and, in general, such connectives as do not imply a dependence of the following, on the preceding clause.

723.—Obs. 2. These conjunctions connect not only words, but also clauses whose construction is the same, i. e. whose subjects are in the same case, and their verbs in the same mood; as, concidunt venti, fugiuntque nubes.

724.-Obs. 3. Words in the same construction are sometimes in a dif ferent case: still they are connected by the copulative conjunctions; thus, mea et reipublicæ interest. Here, mea and reipublicæ, though in different cases, are in the same construction by R. XVIII. (415). So, constitit asse et pluris, Rule XLIV. (581). Vir magni ingenii, summâque industriá, Rule VII. (339), &c. The subjunctive being often used for the imperative is sometimes coupled with it; as, disce nec invideas.

725.-Obs. 4. The indicative and subjunctive may be connected in this manner, if the latter does not depend on the former.

726.--Obs. 5. When two words coupled together have each a conjunction, such as, et, aut, vel, sive, nec, &c., without being connected with a preceding word, the first et is rendered both or likewise; the first aut or vel, by either; the first sive, by whether; and the first nec or nèque, by neither. So, also, tum....tum, and cum.... .tum, “not only.... but also" or "both .... and;" and so of others; as, nunc....nunc; jam,....jam, &c. In such cases, the conjunctive before the first word renders it more emphatic: tum....tum often mean, "at one time, ... at another time."

727.-Note. Affirmative and negative sentences are connected by conjunctions in pairs, as follows:

728.-Obs. 6. After words expressing similarity or dissimilarity, ac and atque signify "as ;" and "than;" as, facis ac si me roges, "you do as if you should ask me;"-me colit æquè atque patronum suum, "he shows me as much attention as," &c.;-si aliter scribo ac sentio, "if I write otherwise than I think."

729-Obs. 7. Conjunctions that do not imply doubt and contingency, are usually joined with the indicative mood; those which do imply doubt, contingency and dependence, are, for the most part, joined with the subjunctive (628).