the division of their functions with other magistrates. At first the office had been open only to patricians; that is the original families of Rome and those who by special favour had acquired their privileges. When these could not prevent its being thrown open to the commons-that is to say, the main body of the later settlers in Rome, among whom were plenty of wealthy and distinguished men-they did their best to lessen its importance, and its powers were divided by the institution of new offices, e.g. the censorship and the prætorship, to which at first no plebeian could be elected. The Consul after this had little to do except to preside over the Senate and the elections, and to command the armies of the Republic. It was only in great emergencies that the full power of the consulship (or rather of the regal office) was revived temporarily in the person of the Dictator. second reason why the magistrates were less powerful is the fact that they were elected only for a single year. It is impossible for a man who is to resign his office at the end of a year, to carry out any great policy of his own; and consequently, if there is in the State any permanent authority capable of forming and directing the policy of the State, he will probably be its servant rather than its master.

A

At Rome there was such a permanent body. It was the Senate. And the government of Rome at this time and for long afterwards, in fact till her conquests were finished, was practically in the hands of the Senate. This assembly consisted of 300 members, and these were for the most part elected indirectly by the people; for though the nomination of members was in the hands of the censors, they were bound by custom to nominate all who had been elected to a high magistracy, and those who were once nominated were members for life. The censor however had power to nominate other members, and to remove any name from the roll for misconduct. The Senate carried on all negotiations with foreign powers and received the complaints of subjects and allies; the whole financial system of the State was under its control; it determined how a war was to be carried on, what troops were to be levied, to what provinces the magistrates should be sent, and it had the power of prolonging the command of the magistrates, or of rendering them absolute if it judged that the Republic was in danger. Besides this, it had a general control over the law courts, and special powers of proposing laws, and the means of checking any action of a magistrate by the tribune's veto, which was often

at the service of the Senate. "Called to power not by the accident of birth but by the free choice of the nation, holding office for life and so not dependent on the ever-varying opinion of the people, embracing in it, all that the people possessed of political wisdom and practical statesmanship, absolutely disposing of all financial questions and controlling foreign policy—the Roman Senate was the noblest embodiment of the nation; and in consistency and political sagacity, in unanimity and patriotism, in grasp of power and unwavering courage, the foremost political corporation of all times-an "assembly of kings," which well knew how to combine despotic energy with republican self-devotion. Never was a State represented in

its external relations more worthily than Rome in its best times by the Senate." (Mommsen, Hist. of Rome, Bk. ii. ch. 3.)

B