SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE BOOK

BEFORE attempting to write out an exercise the pupil should read carefully, aloud if possible, the Latin text which serves as a model for the exercise. Noting in every sentence the way the Latin writer states his thought, let him consider how in English the same idea would be expressed idiomatically and naturally. The use of socalled "translation English" is to be avoided. The teacher may point out, in assigning each lesson, certain sentences in the Latin model in which the Latin and the English idioms are peculiarly unlike. The ablative absolute, for instance, can only rarely be translated literally (see the examples in §§ 125 f. of the Notes on Idiom). Frequently a relative pronoun is employed in Latin where a demonstrative or a personal pronoun is demanded in English (see § 288). Again, two or three English sentences may become a single sentence in Latin (see § 296), etc. When a thorough familiarity has thus been acquired with the given passage of Latin, the pupil should drop the model entirely for the time being, and read over the English exercise from beginning to end. Then before he writes. a single word, let him rapidly translate the exercise mentally and without any assistance, even from the footnotes. If a word or a phrase cannot be recalled, it may be disregarded for the moment. After running through the exercise in this way, the pupil may get such help as he can from the notes, the Latin text, or a Latin-English (not English-Latin) dictionary.

1 Sometimes a chapter of the Latin text will be found to epitomize very well a group of constructions,—e. g., Alcibiades 4 illustrates several different constructions of place. Attention is occasionally called to this in the notes to the exercises (see Exercise 35), and the teacher is advised to do all he can in this direction. By use of the indexes the teacher can easily supplement the grammatical references of any lesson.

X

SUGGESTIONS FOR THE USE OF THE BOOK

At last, when he has gained all the information possible about the exercise, he is ready to write out his Latin version. He should never forget that he is to produce one continuous piece of Latin, not merely disconnected sentences. Let him observe with great care, therefore, the ways in which his Latin model begins each new sentence so as to make the thought foliow on naturally and easily from the preceding sentence. Let him also remember that the important word of each phrase, clause, or sentence, should stand at, or near, the beginning; and that, furthermore, the sentence should be so arranged that, when read aloud, it presents a pleasing succession of sounds to the ear. At the same time, due attention should be given to the periodic structure of sentences, an arrangement much more characteristic of Latin than of English. Especial emphasis is to be laid on the mastery of §§ 284-297, in which the arrangement of the Latin sentence is treated.

PART I

NOTES ON IDIOM

1. AGREEMENT.

I. Adjectives

An attributive adjective belonging to two or more nouns regularly agrees with the nearest. Non eadem alacritate et studio, not with the same energy and zeal.

2. A predicate adjective is regularly plural if it modifies two or more singular subjects, and masculine if the subjects are living beings of different genders; neuter if the subjects are things. Pater sororque occisi sunt, father and sister were killed. Ira et avaritia imperio potentiora erant, wrath and greed were more powerful than authority.

NOTE. If the nouns represent both things and living beings, there is no fixed

usage.

Predicate adjectives often agree with the natural gender of the subject. Hominum millia sex perterriti, six thousand men badly frightened.

3. ADJECTIVES AS SUBSTANTIVES. To denote a class, adjectives may be used in the masculine plural: omnes, all men, everybody; maiores, ancestors; minores, descendants; divites, the rich; pauperes, the poor; boni, the good; docti, the learned, etc. In the singular a substantive is usually expressed: docti, the learned, but vir doctus, the learned

man.

4. The use of neuter plural adjectives as substantives is common only in the nominative and accusative. In the other cases the form is ambiguous—i. e., omnibus may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. In such cases it is better to use the proper form of res: omnium rerum, not omnium, as genitive of omnia. These neuter plurals often represent English abstract singulars: vera, truth; falsa, falsehood, etc.

5. COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. Such phrases as too severe, rather too talkative, etc., may be rendered by the simple comparative: gravior, loquacior, etc.

6. If two qualities belonging to the same object are compared, Latin generally expresses both by the comparative. Fortior est quam prudentior, he is more brave than prudent.

7. The most common way of strengthening the comparative is by multo. With the superlative, longe is a common word. Multo nobilior, much nobler, but longe nobilissimus fuit Orgetorix, Orgetorix was by far the noblest.

8. Phrases like as great as possible, as many as possible, etc., are rendered by quam (with or without a form of possum) and a superlative. Quam plurimi, as many as possible. Quam maxime or quam maxime potest, as greatly as possible.

9. The English very is rendered by the simple superlative or the superlative with vel. Virtus summa, or vel summa, very great valor.

10. Some Latin adjectives are used in direct agreement with a noun to denote part of an object, where the English employs a noun with of. Summus mons, the top of the mountain. Per mediam urbem, through the midst of the city. So multus, much (of); extremus, end (of); nullus, none (of); totus, imus, infimus, intimus, postremus, ultimus, reliquus, primus.

2. Pronouns

II. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. These are not expressed except for emphasis or to avoid ambiguity. Lego, legimus, I read, we read, but ego tibi ignoscam? am I to pardon you?

12. The genitive forms mei, tui, sui, (plural) vestri, nostri, are chiefly used as objective genitives. Habetis ducem memorem vestri, you have a leader mindful of you. But the genitive plural forms in -um (nostrum and vestrum) are generally used as partitive genitives. Designat oculis ad caedem unum quemque nostrum, he marks each one of us for slaughter.

13. The genitive of pronouns of the first and second persons does not express possession (12). For this purpose possessives are used. Amor mei, love for me (objective), but meus amor, my love (for some one else).

NOTE.-Latin has no personal pronoun of the third person except se (used only as a reflexive). Where necessary, this want is supplied by a demonstrative or relative pronoun (22).

14. Where several persons are represented by pronouns in Latin the pronoun of the first person stands first, reversing the English order. Ego et tu et tuus frater, you, your brother, and I.

15. DEMONSTRATIVES. Hic, this, refers to what is near the speaker, and is called the demonstrative of the first person. It often refers to the present as contrasted with the past. Haec tempora, modern times, the present times. Ad hanc aetatem, to the present time.

Closely allied is the use of ille hic, the former (more distant) . . . the latter (nearer). the latter (nearer). Curio dicebat hos turpissimae fugae rationem habere, illos etiam iniquo loco dimicandum putare, Curio said that the latter (hos) were planning a most disgraceful flight, the former (illos) thought they ought to give battle even in an unfavorable position.

16. Hic often refers to what follows, the following. Eius belli haec fuit causa, the cause of the war was as follows.

Hic may also refer to what precedes, the above, the preceding. Huic legioni Caesar indulserat praecipue, Caesar had favored this (the before-mentioned) legion especially.

17. Iste, that (of yours), generally refers to that which concerns the second person, and is called the demonstrative of the second person. Extra istam coniurationem, outside that conspiracy of yours.

18. Iste often has a contemptuous or sneering tone. Iste Manlius, that (fellow) Manlius of yours. This tone is apt to remain where iste refers to the third person. Istae copiae, those forces of his. Compare the English "such."