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serio, seriously; subito, suddenly; tuto, safely. To these must be added some adverbs formed from participles: auspicato, composito, consulto, directo, festinato, nec- or inopinato, improviso, iterato, merito, optato, praeparato, sortito. Along with several of these ablative adverbs, the forms in è also are occasionally used; but apart from the origin, the forms in o do not differ either in meaning or in their degrees of comparison from those in ē.

Note 1.-Vere and vero have a somewhat different sense: the regular adverb of verus, true, is vere; but vero is used in answers in the sense of "in truth," or "certainly," but it is more commonly applied as a conjunction in the sense of "but," or "however." We will explain its use in answers by an example. When I am asked, adfuistine heri in convivio? I answer, ego vero adfui; or, without a verb, ego vero, minime vero; and vero thus being merely indicative of a reply, will often be untranslatable into English. The case of certe and certo is generally different from that of vere and vero: the adverb which usually takes the meaning of its adjective is certo, while certe takes the signification of "at least," to limit an assertion; e. g., victi sumus, aut, si dignitas vinci non potest, fructi certe. Certe, however, is frequently used, also, in the sense of our "certainly," especially in the phrase certe scio, which, in Cicero, is even more frequent than certo scio. See my note on Cic., lib. i., in Verr., 1.

Note 2.-Omnino, from omnis, altogether, or in general, may also be reckoned in this class of adverbs. The etymology of oppido, very, is very doubtful.* Profecto, truly, also belongs to this class, if it be derived from profectus a, um; but if it be the same as pro facto, which is more probable, it belongs to those which we shall mention under No. 10.

[§ 267.] 7. (b) In some adjectives of the third declension the neuter singular supplies the place of the adverb; as, facile, difficile, recens, sublime, impune, and abunde, which, however, is not derived from an adjective abundis, but from abundus. To these we must add some belonging to adjectives of the second declension : ceterum, plerumque, plurimum, potissimum more frequent than potissime, multum, and paulum (for which, however, in combination with comparatives, the ablatives multo and paulo are more commonly used), nimium (the same as nimis), parum, and, lastly, the numeral adverbs primum, iterum, tertium, quartum, &c., which have also the termination o (see § 123), and postremum (0), and ultimum (o), which are formed according to the analogy of the numeral adverbs. Poets in particular, and Tacitus, who follows their example, are accustomed to use the neuter of adjectives, of the second as well as of the third declension, as adverbs; e. g., mul

* [Probably to be traced to the Sanscrit root pad, "to go," and hence the primitive meaning would be, perhaps, "in circuit," "from on all sides," i. e., "very," &c. (Pott, Etymol. Forsch., vol. i., p. 245.) Donaldson, however, connects it with the Greek έninɛdov, and makes it synonymous with plane. (Varronianus, p. 62.)]—Am. Ed.

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tum similis, acutum cernere, mite, dulce, crassum, perfidum ridere, indoctum canere, certum and incertum vigilare, triste and torvum clamare, immite sibilare, aeternum discordare, and in the plural, multa gemere, tristia ululare, crebra fe

rire.

Note 1.-We have every reason to consider the adverb prope, which has become a preposition, as the neuter of an obsolete adjective, propis; for propter, which, as an adverb, has the same meaning, is evidently the regu lar adverb, being contracted from propiter, and the comparative propior and the adverb propius must likewise be traced to propis. Saepe is, perhaps, a word of the same kind, but the degrees of the adjective, saepior and saepissimus, are no longer in use.

Note 2.-Instead of difficile, however, the regular adverbial forms difficiliter and difficulter are still more common. Faciliter is unclassical.

[§ 268.] 8. A considerable number of adverbs have the termination im, and are for the most part derived from participles; e. g., caesim, punctim, conjunctim, mixtim, contemptim, cursim, citatim, gravatim (the same as gravate), nominatim, passim (from pandere), praesertim (from prae and sero), privatim, pedetentim, raptim, sensim, carptim, separatim, statim, strictim, tractim. Adverbs of this kind, however, are formed also from other parts of speech, but they generally take the participial termination atim, even when they are not derived from nouns of the first declension: catervatim, cuneatim, gregatim, turmatim, curiatim, gradatim, ostiatim, oppidatim, provinciatim, vicatim, paulatim, singulatim, generatim, summatim, minutatim. Also, confestim (connected with festinare), furtim, singultim, tributim, ubertim, viritim, vicissim. Affatim is of doubtful etymology; interim is derived from inter; olim from the obsolete ollus, which is the same as ille.

[§ 269.] 9. A smaller class of adverbs is formed from nouns by the termination itus, generally to denote origin from that which is expressed by the primitive; as, coelitus, from heaven; funditus, from the foundation, radically; medullitus, penitus, primitus the same as primum, radicitus, stirpitus. Some are derived from adjectives; as, antiquitus, divinitus, and humanitus.

Among the same class we reckon those adverbs which end in us or itus, and are not derived from nouns, but from other parts of speech. That they are derivatives is obvious, but their signification is variously changed. Such are cominus, from a near point; eminus, from afar; intus, from within; subtus, from below; extrinsecus and intrinsecus, from without and within: mordicus (from mordere,

e. g., mordicus tenere; versus, towards (from vertere), which is commonly used as a preposition.

[§ 270.] 10. A large number of adverbs, lastly, arises from the adverbial use of different cases of substantives, and from the composition of different parts of speech. In this manner arose the adverbs of time: noctu, vesperi, mane, tempore or tempori, simul (from similis), diu and quamdiu, tamdiu, aliquamdiu, interdiu, hodie (though contracted from hoc die), quotidie, quotannis, postridie, perendie, pridie, nudius tertius (from nunc dies tertius, the day before yesterday, or the third day from the present), nudius quartus, nudius quintus, nudius tertiusdecimus, propediem, initio, principio, repente and derepente (ablative of repens), imprimis and cumprimis, protenus and protinus (from pro and the preposition tenus), alias, actutum, commodum (just or directly, while the regular adverb commode retains the meaning "conveniently"), modo, postmodo, alternis, interdum, cummaxime, tummaxime, nunc ipsum and tum ipsum, denuo (i. e., de novo), ilicet (ire licet), illico (properly in loco), and extemplo; interea and praeterea lengthen the ā, so that it is not quite certain whether they may be considered as compounds of inter, praeter, and ea, the neuter plural.* So, also, the adverbs of place: foris, foras, insuper, obviam, obiter (from ob and iter), peregre, praesto, rectā (scil. viā), unā. In hactenus, eatenus, quatenus, aliquatenus, the ablative is governed by the preposition tenus. The signification of these adverbs is originally that of locality, but they are frequently used, also, in a figurative sense.

[§ 271.] The mode or manner of an action, in answer to the question qui (an ancient ablative of quid), how? is expressed by adverbs of the same class; as, sponte, an old ablative; forte, an ablative of fors; fortuito (u), forsit, forsitan (fors sit an), forsan and fors have the same meaning as fortasse and fortassis (in prose fortasse and forsitan alone are used); nimirum, scilicet, videlicet, utpote (from ut and pote, properly "as possible," hence "namely," or "as"), dumtaxat, praeterquam, quomodo, quemadmodum, admodum, quamobrem, quare, quapropter, quantopere, tantopere, maximopere and summopere, or, separately, quanto

* Prof Key, The Alphabet, p. 77, foll., accounts for the length of the a by the very probable supposition that the original forms were posteam, inteream, praeteream, on the analogy of the existing words postquam, ante quam, praeterquam, &c.-TRANSL.

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opere, tanto opere, &c.; quantumvis or quamvis, alioqui or alioquin, ceteroqui or ceteroquin, frustrā, to be explained by the ellipsis of via, and to be derived from fraus, fraudo; incassum, nequicquam, summum (not ad summum), tantum, solum, and tantummodo, solummodo, gratis (from gratiis, whence ingratiis), vulgo, bifariam, trifariam, multifariam and omnifariam, with which partem must be understood. Lastly, partim, which was originally the same partem, as in Liv., xxvi., 46, partim copiarum ad tumulum expugnandum mittit, partim ipse ad arcem ducit, but it is more commonly used either with a genitive or the preposition ex, in the sense of alii-alii; e. g., Cic., Phil., viii., 11, quum partim e nobis ita timidi sint, ut omnem populi Romani beneficiorum memoriam abjecerint, partim ita a republica aversi, ut huic se hosti favere prae se ferant ; and in the sense of alia―alia, as in Cic., De Off., ii., 21, eorum autem beneficiorum partim ejusmodi sunt, ut ad uni versos cives pertineant, partim singulos ut attingant.

[ 272.] Note.-On the signification of some of the above-mentioned adverbs The adverbs continuo, protinus, statim, confestim, subito, repente and derepente, actutum, illico, ilicet, extemplo, signify in general "directly" or "immediately," but, strictly speaking, continuo means immediately after; statim, without delay; confestim, directly; subito, suddenly, unexpectedly; protinus, farther, i. e., in the same direction in which the beginning was made; hence, without interruption; repente, and derepente, which strengthens the meaning, signifies "at once," and is opposed to sensim, gradually; e. g., Cic., de Off., i., 33, amicitias, quae minus delectent et minus probentur, magis decere censent sapientes sensim dissuere, quam repente praecidere; actutum is instantaneously, eodem actu; ilicet occurs more rarely than illico, but has almost the same meaning, "forthwith," or "the instant;" e. g., Sallust, Jug., 45, ubi formido illa mentibus decessit, ilicet lascivia atque superbia incessere; Cic., p. Muren., 10, simulatque increpuit suspicio tumultus, artes illico nostrae conticescunt. Extemplo, which is similar in its derivation (for templum is a locus religiosus), is similar also in meaning; e. g., Liv., xli., 1, alii gerendum bellum extemplo, antequam contrahere copias hostes possent, alii consulendum prius senatum censebant.

[$ 273.] Praesertim, praecipue, imprimis, cumprimis, and apprime, are generally translated by "principally;" but they have not all the same meaning. Praesertim is our "particularly," and sets forth a particular circumstance with emphasis; praecipue retains the meaning of its adjective, praecipuus being the opposite of communis; jus praecipuum, therefore, is a privilege, and opposed to jus commune, so that praecipue answers to our "especially." The sense of imprimis and cumprimis is clear from their composition-be fore or in preference to many others, principally; apprime, lastly, occurs more rarely, and qualifies and strengthens only adjectives; as, apprime doctus, apprime utilis. Admodum, also, strengthens the meaning; it properly signifies "according to measure," that is, in as great a measure as can be, e. g., admodum gratum mihi feceris; litterae tuae me admodum delectarunt. In combination with numerals it denotes approximation, and occurs frequently in Livy and Curtius; in Cicero we find only nihil admodum, that is, in reality nothing at all."

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[ 274.] It is difficult to determine the difference among the words which we generally translate by "only," viz.: modo, dumtaxat, solum, tan

tum, solummodo, tantummodo. The common equivalent for "cely" is modo; solum (alone) is "merely," and points to something higher or greater; tantum is only or merely, but intimates that something else was expected, e. g., dixit tantum, non probavit. These significations are rengthened by composition: tantummodo and solummodo, the latter of which, however, occurs only in late writers. Dumtaxat is not joined with verbs, and seems to answer to our "solely;" e. g., Caes., Bell. Civ., iii., 40, peditatu dumtaxat procul ad speciem utitur, solely from afar : Curt., viii., 4, (1), quo (carmine) significabatur male instituisse Graecos, quod tropaeis regum dumtaxat nomina inscriberentur; ibid., ix., 36, (9), aestus totos circa flumen campos inundaverat, tumulis dumtaxat eminentibus, velut insulis parvis. In another signification this word is the same as certe, at least (see § 266), and denotes a limitation to a particular point; as in Cicero, nos animo dumtaxat vigemus, re familiari comminuti sumus, in courage, at least, I am not wanting; valde me Athenae delectarunt, urbs dumtaxat et urbis ornamenta et hominum benivolentia. Saltem, also, signifies "at least," but denotes the reduction of a demand to a minimum; e. g., when I say, redde.ihi libros, si non omnes, saltem tres, or, as Cicero says, eripe mihi hunc dolorem, aut minue saltem; finge saltem aliquid commode.

[275.] Frustra conveys the idea of a disappointed expectation, as in frustra suscipere labores; nequicquam that of the absence of success, as in Horat., Carm., i., 3, 21, nequicquam deus" abscidit Oceano terras, si tamen impiae rates transiliunt vada. Incassum is less commonly used; it is composed of in and cassum, hollow, empty, and therefore properly signifies "into the air," or "to no purpose;" as, tela incassum jactare,

Alias and alioqui both mean "elsewhere," but alias signifies "at another time," or "in another place," whereas alioqui (like ceteroqui and ceterum) means "in other respects;" as in Livy, triumphatum de Tiburtibus, alioquin mitis victoria fuit, or "or else" (in case of a thing mentioned before not taking place), like aliter; as in Tacitus, dedit tibi Augustus pecuniam non ea lege, ut semper daretur: languescet alioqui industria. No difference in the use of alioqui and alioquin has yet been discovered. The addition or omission of the n, at least, does not appear to depend upon the letter at the beginning of the word following.

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[§ 276.] 1. THE Simple or Primitive Adverbs are few in number when compared with the derivatives, especially with those derived from adjectives, and ending in è and ter. The signification of the latter depends upon that of their adjective, and has generally a very definite extent; but the primitive adverbs express the most general cir cumstances that are to be considered in connexion with a fact, and are indicated by the questions how? when? where? whether? and the general answers to them; but

[Donaldson derives this adverb from taxo, -are, "to estimate' and he makes the primitive meaning of the adverb to be, "provided one estimates it," "estimating it accurately," i. e., "only," "at least," "so far as that goes." (Varronianus, p. 181.) The derivation given by Grotefend is far inferior: duntaxat aus dum taceo (cetera), sat (est hoc)." Donaldson pronounces it absurd.]-Am. Ed.

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