This werd, with poets, contains the idea of impatience, and signifies "without delay," "forthwith," as in the line of Virgil, Aen., ii., 103, jamdudum sumite poenas. The same strengthening of the meaning appears in jampridem, long since, a long time ago. Tandem, at length, likewise serves to express the impatience with which a question is put, and even more strongly than nam (§ 134); e. g., Cic., Philip., i., 9, haec utrum tandem lex est an legum omnium dissolutio?

66

[§ 288.] 3. The Adverbs of Place, mentioned above, No. 2, ubi, where? and unde, whence? together with the adverbs derived from the relative pronoun, viz., quo, whither? and qua, in what way? are in relation to other adverbs, demonstratives, relatives, and indefinites, which are formed in the same manner. All together form a system of adverbial correlatives similar to that of the pro nominal adjectives. (See above, § 130.) We shall begin with the interrogative form, which is the simplest. Its form (as in English) is the same as that of the relative, and differs from it only by its accent. The relative acquires a more general meaning, either by being doubled, or by the suffix cunque, which is expressed in English by ever," as in "wherever." Without* any relative meaning, the simple form acquires a more general signification by the suffix que, or by the addition of the particular words vis and libet. (We call it an adverbium loci generale.) The fact of the suffix que not occurring with quo and qua is easily accounted for by the possibility of confounding them with the adverb quoque and the ablative quaque; but still, in some passages at least, quaque is found as an adverb, and so also the compound usquequaque, in any way whatever. The demonstrative is formed from the pronoun is, and its meaning is strengthened by the suffix dem. The indefinite is derived from the pronoun aliquis, or by compositions with it. We thus obtain the following correlative adverbs:

* We say without in regard to the general analogy. There are, how ever, passages in which the suffix que forms a generalizing relative, and in which, e. g., quandoque is used for quandocunque, as in Horat., Ars Poet., 359, qram loque bonus dormitat Homerus, and frequently in Tacitus. See the commentators on Livy, i., 24, 3.

[§ 289.] To these we must add those which are formed by composition with alius, nullus, uter, and answer to the question where? alibi, elsewhere; nullibi, nowhere (which, however, is based only on one passage of Vitruvius, vii., 1, its place being supplied by nusquam); utrubi or utrobi, in which of two places? with the answer utrobique, in each of the two places. Inibi is a strengthening form of ibi, and signifies "in the place itself." To the question whence? answer aliunde, from another place; utrimque, from both sides, which formation we find again in intrinsecus, from within, and extrinsecus, from without. To the question whither? answer alio, to another place; to utro, to which of two sides? answer utroque, to both sides, and neutro, to neither. The following are formed with the same termination, and have the same meaning: quopiam and quoquam, to some place (the former in an affirmative, and the latter in a negative sentence, like quisquam); intro, into; retro, back; ultro, beyond; citro, this side, chiefly used in the combination of ultro et citro, ultro citroque (towards that and this side), but ultro also signifies "in addition to," and "voluntarily." Porro is formed from pro, and signifies "onward" or "farther," e. g., porro pergere. In the latter sense it is used also as a conjunction to connect sentences. Compounds of eo are: adeo, up to that degree or point, so much; eousque, so long, so far; and and quo: quousque quoad, how long? We have farther o notice the adverbs with the feminine termination of the ablative à (which is probably to be explained by supplying via), which have become prepositions; viz.: citra, contra, extra, intra, supra, derived from the original forms, cis, con, ex, in, super; also, infra, below; and ultra, beyond (from the adjectives infer and ulter, which, however, do not occur); circa, around; and juxta, by the side or in

of

like manner. The derivation of the last two is doubtful, but they belong to the adverbs of place. In this way arose, also, nequaquam and haudquaquam, in no way; usquequaque, in all points, in all ways, composed of the above-mentioned quaque and usque.

[§ 290.] We here add the correlatives to the question whither? quorsum or quorsus? (contracted from quoversum or quoversus). The answers to them likewise end in us and um (but sometimes the one and sometimes the other is more commonly used): horsum, hither; aliquoversum, towards some place; aliorsum, towards another place; quoquoversus, towards every side; utroqueversum, introrsum, prorsum, forward (prorsus is better known in the derivative sense of " entirely"); rursum, or more frequently retrorsum, backward (rursus remained in use in the sense of "again"); sursum, heavenward (also, sursum versus, a double compound); deorsum, downward; dextrorsum, to the right; sinistrorsum, to the left; adversus or adversum, towards or opposite, usually a preposition; seorsus or seorsum, separately.

[§ 291.] 4. The above-mentioned demonstratives, ibi, there; inde, hence, and eo, thither, are used only with reference to relative sentences which precede; e. g., ubi te heri vidi, ibi nolim te iterum conspicere, where I saw thee yesterday, there I do not wish to see thee again; unde venerat, eo rediit, he returned thither, whence he had come. More definite demonstratives, therefore, are requisite, and they are formed in Latin from the three demonstrative pronouns by means of special terminations. The place where? hic, istic, illic, (there). whither? huc, istuc, illuc, (thither).

whence? hinc, istinc, illinc, (thence). Instead of istuc and illuc, the forms isto and illo also are in use. These adverbs are employed with the same difference which we pointed out above (§ 127) as existing between the pronouns hic, iste, and ille, so that hic, huc, and hinc point to the place where I, the speaker, am; istic, istuc, and istinc, to the place of the second person, to whom I speak; and illic, illuc, and illinc to the place of the third person or persons, who are spoken of. The following are compounds of huc and hinc: adhuc, until now; hucusque, as far as this place; abhinc and dehinc, from this moment (counting backward). To the question qua? ic

what way? we answer by the demonstratives hac, istac, illac, which are properly ablatives, the word via being understood.

Note 1.-Cicero thus writes to Atticus, who was staying at Rome, while he himself lived in exile at Thessalonica, in Macedonia (iii., 12): Licet tibi significarim, ut ad me venires, id omittam tamen; intelligo te re istic prodesse, hic ne verbo quidem levare me posse. Istic, where you are, that is, at Rome, you can be really useful to me; hic, here where I live, that is, at Thessalonica, you would not even be able to comfort me with a word. In this manner the Romans, in their letters, briefly and distinctly express the localities of the writer and the person addressed, as well as of the persons written about.

[§ 292.] Note 2.-Adhuc expresses the duration of time down to the pres ent moment, and therefore answers to our "still," when it signifies "until now" (we also find usque adhuc); and, strictly speaking, it should not be confounded either with etiamnunc, which does not contain the idea of duration of time, and answers to the question when? or with usque eo and etiamtum, which are the corresponding expressions of the past time. But even good authors apply the peculiar meaning of the word to the pres ent, and use adhuc, also, of the relative duration of the time past; e. g., Liv., xxi., 48, Scipio quamquam gravis adhuc vulnere erat, tamen-profectus est; Curt., vii., 19, praecipitatus ex equo barbarus adhuc tamen repugnabat. "Not yet" is expressed by nondum, even in speaking of the present, more rarely by adhuc non.

CHAPTER LXIV.

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.

[§ 293.] 1. THE Comparison of Adverbs is throughout dependant upon the comparison of adjectives, for those adverbs only have degrees of comparison which are derived from adjectives or participles by the termination ē (0) or ter; and wherever the comparison of adjectives is wanting altogether or partly, the same deficiency occurs in their adverbs.

2. The comparative of adverbs is the same as the neuter of the comparative of adjectives (majus only has the adverb magis, § 265), and the superlative is derived from the superlative of the adjectives by changing the termination us into ē; e. g., doctior, doctius; elegantior, eleganti us; emendatior, emendatius; superlative, doctissimus, doctissime; elegantissime, emendatissime; summus, summe. The positives in o (e. g., cito, raro) also make the superlative in e; meritissimo and tutissimo, however, are more commonly used than meritissime and tutissime.

Note. Thus the positive (see (111) is wanting of deterius, deterrime ; potius, potissime (we more frequently find potissimum); prius, primum or primo (for prime is not used, but apprime, principally); the positive ociter, to which ocius and ocissime belong, occurs very rarely, since the compara

tive ocius has, at the same time, the meaning of a positive. Of valde, very (contracted from valide, 263), the degrees validius and validissime do not, indeed, occur in Cicero, but are used in the silver age of the language.

[§ 294.] 3. The primitive adverbs, and those derived from other words by the terminations im and tus, together with the various adverbs enumerated in § 270, foll., that is, in general all adverbs which are not derived from adjectives and participles by the endings e (or o instead of it) and ter, do not admit the degrees of comparison. The only exceptions are diu and saepe: diutius, diutissime; saepius, saepissime. Nuper has a superlative nuperrime, but no comparative, and satis and temperi have the comparatives satius (also used as a neuter adjective) and temperius (in Cicero). Respecting secius, the comparative of secus, see § 283.

Note.-There are a few diminutive adverbs: clanculum from clam, primulum from primum, celeriuscule, saepiuscule, from the comparatives celerius and saepius. Belle, prettily, is a diminutive of bene, and from belle are derived bellus and bellissimus, without a comparative, and hence the adverb bellissime.

CHAPTER LXV.

PREPOSITIONS.

[§ 295.] 1. PREPOSITIONS are indeclinable words, or, to use the grammatical term, particles, which express the relations of nouns to one another, or to verbs; e. g., a town in Italy; a journey through Italy; my love for you; the first century after Christ; he came out of his house; he lives near Berlin; on the Rhine, &c. They govern in

*["Prepositions are pronouns in the strictest sense of the word. They express relations of place, and in their ordinary use are employed to denote the relative positions of visible objects. Grammarians tell us that they govern cases, and it is the prevailing practice to arrange them according to the cases which they are said to govern. But this is palpably false; for, in all languages which have any inflections, a case may express by itself any relation which the addition of a preposition could give to it, and, in languages which, like the Sanscrit, have a complete assortment of cases, many relations of place are invariably expressed by the cases without any particle prefixed. Such would have been the fact in the Greek and Latin languages too, but the rules of euphony, convenience, the influence of writing, and a multitude of other causes, have contributed to mutilate the terminations of the nouns, as well as of the verbe, and thus preposi tions, the force of which was originally included in the case endings, have come to be prefixed for the sake of greater distinctness, just as in Greek the particular noun is placed after the pronoun, called the article, in epetitions, and just as the nominative case is prefixed to the verb." (Donaldson's New Cratylus, p. 212.)]—Am. Ed.