preme) Juppiter, pro dii immortales, pro deum fidem, pro deum atque hominum fidem, pro deum or pro deum immortalium (scil. fidem), and several others of this kind.

Note.-Me before the names of gods must be explained by an ellipsis : the complete expression was, ita me (e. g., Hercules) juvet; or with the vocative, ita me Hercule juves. The interjection medius fidius arose, in all probability, from me dius (Atóç) fidius, which is archaic for filius, and is thus equivalent to mehercules, for Hercules is the son of that god. Mehercule is the form which Cicero (Orat., 47) approves, and which, along with hercule, occurs most frequently in his writings. See my note on in Verr., iii., 62. The oath by Pollux (pol) is a very light one, and hence it is given especially to women in the comic writers. In edepol and edecastor the e is either the same as me, or it is a mere sound of interjection; de is deus.*

SYNTAX.

I. CONNEXION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.†

CHAPTER LXIX.

[§ 362.] 1. THE subject of a proposition is that concerning which anything is declared, and the predicate that which is declared concerning the subject. The subject appears either in the form of a substantive, or in that of an adjective or pronoun, supplying the place of a substantive. Whenever there is no such grammatical subject, the indeclinable part of speech or proposition which takes its place is treated as a substantive of the neuter gender. (Compare § 43.)

[§ 363.] Note 1.-The manner in which a pronoun supplies the place of a substantive requires no explanation. An adjective can be used as a substantive only when a real substantive is understood. The substantive most frequently and easily understood is homo, and many Latin words which are properly adjectives have thus acquired the meaning of substan tives; e. g., amicus, familiaris, aequalis, vicinus, &c. (see § 410, foll.), and others, such as socius, servus, libertinus, reus, candidatus, although most fre quently used as substantives, nevertheless occur also as adjectives. Bu upon this point the Dictionary must be consulted, and we only remark tha

*[The more common, and very probably the more correct opinion makes edepol and edecastor to be for per ædem Pollucis, and per ædem Cas toris, i. e.,"by the temple of Pollux," &c. These forms are still farther shortened into Epol, Ecastor. The dental D appears to have been dropped in the forms of the old Latin language when preceded and followed by a vowel, just as we find it to be frequently the case in the French forms of Latin words. (Donaldson's Varronianus, p. 272, note.)]—Am. Ed.

[For a more extended view of this subject, consult Weissenborn (Lat. Schulgramm., p. 184, seqq.).]—Am. Ed.

[Writers on general grammar make the adjective as truly a noun, or the name of a thing, as a substantive. (Consult Donaldson's New Cratylus p. 375, seqq.)]-Am. Ed.

ordinary adjectives are used as substantives with the ellipsis of homo, as bonus, nocens, innocens. But an adjective in the singular is not commonly used in this way, and we scarcely ever find such a phrase as probus nemi nem laedit, instead of homo probus neminem laedit. Sapiens, a sage, or a phi losopher, and liber, a free man, alone are used as substantives in the sin gular. In the plural, however, the omission of the substantive homines, denoting general classes of men, is much more frequent, and we find, e. g., pauperes, divites, boni, improbi, docti, and indocti, just as we say the rich, the poor, &c. It must, however, be observed that very few adjectives, when used as substantives, can be accompanied by other adjectives, and we cannot say, e. g., multi docti for multi homines (viri) docti.* The neuters of adjectives of the second declension, however, are used very frequently as substantives, both in the singular and plural. Thus we read bonum, a good thing; contrarium, the contrary; verum, that which is true; malum, evil; honestum in the sense of virtus, and bona, mala, contraria, &c In the plural neuter adjectives of the third declension are used in the same way; as, turpia, levia, coelestia. But the Latins, in general, preferred adding the substantive res to an adjective, to using the neuter of it as a substantive; as, res contrariae, res multae, res leviores, just as we do in English.

[364.] Note 2.-It is worth noticing that the word miles is frequently used in Latin in the singular where we should have expected the plural; e. g., in Curtius, iii., init., Alexander ad conducendum ex Peloponneso militem Cleandrum cum pecunia mittit; Tac., Ann., ii., 31, cingebatur interim milite domus, strepebant etiam in vestibulo. Similar words, such as eques, pedes, are used in the same way, and the instances are very numerous.† Romanus, Poenus, and others are likewise used for Romani and Poeni in the sense of Roman, Punian soldiers.

[§ 365.] 2. The predicate appears either in the form of a verb, or of the auxiliary combined with a noun.

The predicate accommodates itself as much as possible to its subject. When the predicate is a verb, it must be in the same number as the subject; e. g., arbor viret, the tree is green; arbores virent, the trees are green; deus est, God is; dii sunt, the gods are or exist. When the predicate is an adjective, participle, or adjective pronoun, combined with the auxiliary esse, it takes the number and gender of the subject; e. g., puer est modestus, libri sunt mei, prata sunt secta. When the predicate is a substantive with the auxiliary esse, it is independent of the subject both in regard to number and gender; e. g., captivi militum praeda fuerant; amicitia vinculum quoddam est hominum inter se. But when a substantive has two forms, one masculine and the other feminine; as, rex, regina; magister, magistra; inventor, inventrix; indagator, indagatrix; corruptor, corruptrix; praeceptor, praeceptrix,

[But we can say multa bona, plurimi improbi, &c. Consult Billroth, Lat. Gr., p. 204, ed. Ellendt. ]-Am. Ed.

[In all these cases we are to regard miles, eques, &c., as collective A much rarer usage is the following, rex for reges (Cic., Deiot., 9, 26); amicus for amicorum genus, (Cic, Lael., 16, 65.)]-Am. Ed.

nouns.

the predicate must appear in the same gender as the subject; e. g., licentia corruptrix est morum; stilus optimus est dicendi effector et magister. When the subject is a neuter the predicate takes the masculine form, the latter being more nearly allied to the neuter than the feminine: e. g., tempus vitae magister est. When the subject is a noun epicene (see § 42), the predicate follows its grammatical gender; as, aquila volucrum regina, fida ministra Jovis, though it would not be wrong to say aquila rex volucrum.

It is only by way of exception that esse is sometimes connected with adverbs of place; such as aliquis or ali quid prope, propter, longe, procul est, or when esse signifies "to be in a condition;" e. g., Cic., ad Fam, ix., 9, praeterea rectissime sunt apud te omnia, everything with you is in a very good state or condition; de Leg., i., 17, quod est longe aliter; Liv., viii., 19 (dicebant), se sub imperio populi Romani fideliter atque obedienter futuros. Sallust and Tacitus connect esse, also, with the adverbs abunde, impune, and frustra, and use them as indeclinable adjectives; e. g., omnia mala abunde erant; ea res frustra fuit; dicta impune erant.*

[§ 366.] Note 1.-Collective nouns, that is, such as denote a multitude of individual persons or things; e. g., multitudo, turba, vis, exercitus, juventus, nobilitas, gens, plebs, vulgus, frequently occur in poetry with a plural verb for their predicate; e. g., Ovid., Metam., xii., 53, Atria turba tenent, veniunt lege vulgus euntque; Fast., ii., 507, Tura ferant placentque novum pia turba Quirinum. As for the practice of prose writers, there is no passage in Cicero to prove that he used this construction (see my note on Cic., in Verr., i., 31, 80), and in Caesar and Sallust it occurs either in some soli tary instance, as Caes., Bell. Gall., ii., 6, quum tanta multitudo lapides ac tela conjicerent, or the passages are not critically certain. (See Oudendorp on Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 17, and Corte on Sallust, Jugurth., 28.) But Livy takes greater liberty, and connects collective substantives with the plural, as ii., 5, Desectam segetem magna vis hominum immissa corbibus fudere in Tiberim; xxiv., 3, Locros omnis multitudo abeunt; xxxii., 12, Cetera omnis multitudo, velut signum aliquod secuta, in unum quum convenisset, frequenti agmine petunt Thessaliam. (Compare Drakenborch on xxxv., 26.) He even expresses the plurality of a collective noun by using the noun standing by its side in the plural; as in xxvi., 35, Haec non in occulto, sed propalam in foro atque oculis ipsorum Consulum ingens turba circumfusi fremebant; xxv., 34, Cuneus is hostium, qui in confertos circa ducem impetum fecerat, ut exanimem labentem ex equo Scipionem vidit, alacres gaudio cum clamore per totam aciem nuntiantes discurrunt; xxvii., 51, tum enimvero omnis aetas currere obvii; so, also, in i., 41, clamor inde concursusque populi, mirantium quid rei esset. But such instances are, after all, rare and surprising. The case is different when the notion of a plurality is derived from a collective noun of a preceding proposition, and made the subject of a proposition which follows. Instances of this kind occur now and then in Cicero; de Nat

* [Consult Weissenborn, Lat. Schulgr., p. 186, ◊ 155, Anm. 3.]—Am. Ed

Deor., ii., 6, ut hoc idem generi humano evenerit, quod in terra collocati sint, because they (viz., homines) live on earth; p. Arch., 12, qui est ex eo numero, qui semper apud omnes sancti sunt habiti; and with the same collective noun, p. Marc., i.; p. Quint., 23. They are still more frequent in Livy; iv., 56, Ita omnium populorum juventus Antium contracta: ibi castris positis hostem opperiebantur; vi., 17, Jam ne nocte quidem turba ex eo loco dilabebatur, refracturosque carcerem minabantur. See the passages in Drakenborch on xxi., 7, 7.

[367] A plural verb is sometimes used by classical prose writers (though not by Cicero) after uterque, quisque (especially pro se quisque), pars -pars (for alii-alii), alius--alium, and alter-alterum (one another or each other), for these partitive expressions contain the idea of plurality; e. g., Caes., Bell., Civ., iii., 30, Eodem die uterque eorum ex castris stativis exercitum educunt; Liv., ii., 15, missi honoratissimus quisque ex patribus ; ii., 59, cetera multitudo decimus quisque ad supplicium lecti. Sometimes the plural of a participle is added; as Curt., iii., 6, pro se quisque dextram ejus amplexi grates habebant velut praesenti deo; Liv., ix., 14, Pro se quisque non haec Furculas, nec Caudium, nec saltus invios esse memorantes, caedunt pariter resistentes fusosque; Tacit., Ann., ii., 24, pars navium haustae sunt, plures ejectae (instead of pars-pars, the place of one of them being frequently supplied by pauci, nonnulli, plerique or plures, as in our case); Liv., ii, 10, dum alius alium ut proelium incipiant, circumspectant. Expressions like these may derive their explanation from propositions, in which the comprehensive plural is used in the first part, and afterward the partitive singular; e. g., Sallust, Jug., 58, At nostri repentino metu perculsi, sibi quisque pro moribus consulunt: alii fugere, alii arma capere, magna pars vulnerati aut occisi; and in Livy, Ceter suo quisque tempore aderunt, or Decemviri perturbati alius in aliam partem cas

trorum discurrunt.

[§ 368.] Note 2.-The natural rule, according to which the adjective parts of speech take the gender of the substantives to which they belong, seems to be sometimes neglected, inasmuch as we find neuter adjectives joined with substantives of other genders: Triste lupus stabulis; varium et mutabile semper femina in Virgil, and Omnium rerum mors est extremum, even in Cicero. But in these cases the adjective is used as a substantive, and triste, for example, is the same as "something sad," or "a sad thing," and we might use res tristis instead; as, Livy, ii., 3, says, leges rem surdam, inexorabilem esse. A real exception occurs in what is called constructio ad synesim, that is, when substantives, which only in their figurative sense denote human beings, have a predicate in the true gender of the person spoken of, without regard to the grammatical gender; e. g., Liv., x., 1, capita conjurationis ejus, quaestione ab Consulibus ex senatusconsulto habita, virgis caesi ac securi percussi sunt. So, also, auxilia (auxiliary troops) irati, Liv., xxix., 12, where Gronovius's note must be consulted. The relative pronoun (see 371), when referring to such substantives, frequently takes the gender of the persons understood by them. Thus, mancipium, animal, furia, scelus, monstrum, prodigium, may be followed by the relative qui or quae, according as either a man or a woman is meant; e. g., Cic., in Verr., ii., 32, Quod unquam hujusmodi monstrum aut prodigium audivimus aut vidimus, qui cum reo transigat, post cum accusatore decidat? ad Fam., i., 9, Primum illa furia muliebrium religionum (Clodius), qui non pluris fecerat Bonam Deam quam tres sorores, impunitatem est assecutus. See Drakenborch on Liv., xxix., 12. After milia the predicate sometimes takes the gender of the persons, whose number is denoted by milia; e. g., Curt., iv., 19, duo milia Tyriorum, crucibus affixi, per ingens litoris spatium pependerunt; Liv., xl., 41, ad septem milia hominum in naves impositos praeter oram Etrusci maris Neapolim transmisit. Usually, however, the neuter is used. See the collection of examples in Drakenborch on Liv., xxxvii., 39, in fin. As to other cases of constructio ad synesim, which do not belong to grammar, but are irregularities of expression, sec Corte on Sallust, Cat., 18.

[ 369.] Note 3.-When the substantive forming the subject has a dif

ferent number from that which is its predicate, the verb esse (and all other verbs of existence) follows the subject, as in the above quoted passage of Livy, xxi., 15, Quamquam captivi militum praeda fuerant. So, also, Cic., de Fin., v., 10, quae (omnia) sine dubio vitae sunt eversio; Ovid, Met., viii., 636, tota domus duo sunt; Tac. Ann., iv., 5, praecipuum robur Rhenum juxta octo legiones erant, for legiones is the subject; Plin., Hist. Nat., iv., 5, angustiae, unde procedit Peloponnesus, Isthmos appellantur. But we also find, and perhaps even more frequently, that the verb takes the number of the substantive which is properly the predicate; e. g., Cic., in Pis., 4, aude nunc, o furia, de tuo consulatu dicere, cujus fuit initium ludi Compitalicii; Sallust, Jug., 2k, possedere ea loca, quae proxuma Carthaginem Numidia appellatur; Terent., Andr., iii., 2, 23, amantium irae amoris integratio est; Liv., î., 34, cui Tarquinii materna tantum patria esset; ii., 54, Manlio Veientes provincia evenit; xlv., 39, pars non minima triumphi est victimae praecedentes. In propositions like that of Seneca, Epist., 4, Magnae divitiae sunt lege naturae composita paupertas; and Cicero, Parad., in fin., Contentum vero suis rebus esse maximae sunt certissimaeque divitiae, the plural is less surprising. But it is clear that, where the subject and predicate may be exchanged or transposed, the verb takes the number of the substantive nearest to it. When the predicate is a participle combined with esse or videri, the participle takes the gender of the substantive which is nearest to it, according to the rule explained in § 376. Thus we find in Cicero, de Divin., ii., 43, non omnis error stultitia est dicenda; de Leg., i., 7, unde etiam universus hic mundus una civitas communis deorum atque hominum existimanda (est); Terent., Phorm., i., 2, 44, paupertas mihi onus visum est miserum et grave. If we transpose non est omnis stultitia error dicendus, and visa mihi semper est paupertas grave onus et miserum, the propositions are just as correct. But in Justin, i., 2, Semira mis, sexum mentita, puer esse credita est, the feminine would be necessary for the sake of clearness, even if there were no verb esse.

[§ 370.] 3. When nouns are combined with one another, without being connected by the verb esse, or by a relative pronoun and esse, in such a manner as to form only one idea, as in "a good man," the adjective, participle, or pronoun follows the substantive in gender, number, and case; e. g., huic modesto puero credo, hanc modestam virginem diligo.

When two substantives are united with each other in this way, they are said, in grammatical language, to stand in apposition to each other, and the one substantive explains and defines the other; e. g., oppidum Paestum, arbor laurus, Taurus mons, lupus piscis, Socrates vir sapientissimus. The explanatory substantive (substantivum appositum) takes the same case as the one which is explained; e. g., Socratem, sapientissimum virum, Athenienses interfecerunt (an exception occurs in names of towns, see § 399). They may differ in number and gender; as, urbs Athenae, pisces signum; Virg., Eclog., ii., 1, Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin, delicias domini; but when the substantive in apposition has two genders, it takes the one which answers to that of the other substantive. (Comp. above, § 365.) The predicate likewise follows the substantive