O quam facile erat orbis imperium occupare, aut mihi, Romanis militibus, aut, me rege, Romanis! Flor., i., 18.

[§ 645.] As the Latins have no participle of esse in current use, an adjective alone must sometimes supply the place of a participle; e. g., deo propitio, when God is gracious; invita Minerva, sereno coelo, aspera hieme, me ignaro, illis consciis.

Romani, Hannibale vivo, nunquam se sine insidiis futuros arbitrabantur, Nep., Hann., 12.

Obvius fit Miloni Clodius expeditus, nullā rhedā, nullis impedimentis, nullis Graecis comitibus, Cic., p. Milon., 10. [$ 646.] Note.-Owing to the want of a participle of esse, an adjective is used alone in descriptions of the weather, the substantive being understood; thus we frequently find sereno, scil. coelo, the heaven being bright; tranquillo, scil. mari, the sea being tranquil; Plin., Hist. Nat., xi., 28, iidem sereno texunt, nubilo texunt. Substantives when used thus absolutely must be considered as ablatives of time; as, comitiis, ludis, circensibus; but it is surprising to find, e. g., Sueton., Caes., 11, qui proscriptione pecunias ex aerario acceperant, where we have to supply durante, during the proscription; Tacit., Ann., iii., 28, dedit jura, quis pace et Principe uteremur; i. e., under a Princeps, or there being a Princeps; xvi., 1, multis palam et pluribus occultis, many being present, openly and still more secretly. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish such an ablative absolute from an ablativus modi; as in Liv., xxxiv., 47, aequis viribus, pari spe pugnatum est, where we prefer regarding the ablat. as ablativi modi; but in Cic., Acad., ii., 21, Siquis ex hoc loco proficiscatur Puteolos, stadia triginta, probo navigio, bono gubernatore, hac tranquillitate, probabile videatur se illuc venturum esse salvum, we regard them as real ablatives absolute. Comp. § 472.

[§ 647.] 8. The simple ablative of the participle perfect passive sometimes supplies the place of the whole construction of the ablative absolute, the proposition following being considered as a noun of the neuter gender, and as the subject of the participle; e. g., Hannibal, cognito insidias sibi parari, fuga salutem quaesivit, equivalent to cognitis insidiis sibi paratis. This use, however, is confined to a few participles; as, audito, cognito, comperto (in a passive sense), explorato, desperato, nuntiato, edicto.

Alexander, audito Dareum appropinquare cum exercitu, obviam ire constituit, Curt., v., 35, (13).

Excepto quod non simul esses, cetera laetus, Horat., Ep.

[ 648.] Note.-The place of such an ablative is sometimes supplied by u adjective; as, Liv., xxviii., 35, multi adnantes navibus, incerto prae tene bris quid peterent aut vitarent, foede interierunt; i. e., quum incertum esset, which would be much more in accordance with the ordinary practice, Tacit., Ann., i., 6, juxta periculoso, ficta seu vera promeret; iii., 60, ipsorumque numinum religiones introspexit, libero, ut quondam, quid firmaret mutaretve. Sometimes, though very rarely, a participle is found in the ablative absolute so independently, that the proposition following cannot even be conceived as its subject; as in Liv., xxii., 55, quum, nondum palam facto, vivi

mortuique promiscue complorarentur; Tacit., Ann., xi., 10, in cujus amnis transgressu multum certato, pervicit Bardanes; and Terent., Hecyr., v., 1, 10, Nam jam aetate ea sum, ut non siet, peccato, mi ignosci aequum; i. e., si peccatum fuerit. In a similar passage in Cicero, de Leg. Agr., ii., 2, in fin., we must read, according to the majority of MSS., cujus errato, instead of cui, errato. Some of these ablatives absolute, as auspicato, have by long usage become adverbs: see § 266.

[§ 649.] 9. The participle future passive has in the nominative (and in the construction of the accusative with the infinitive, in the accusative also) the signification of necessity, and less frequently that of possibility: laudandus, one who must be praised, or ought to be praised. The person by whom a thing must be done is expressed with this participle by the dative, and not by the preposition ab.

The neuter of this participle, joined with a tense of esse, retains the signification of necessity; as, audendum est, moriendum est, omnibus hominibus moriendum est, we must venture, we must die, &c. An accusative of the object, if the verb is transitive, is joined with this neuter only in the early and unclassical writers, as Plautus, Lucretius, and Varro, and sometimes also by the poets who are fond of ancient expressions (as Silius Ital., viii., 36; xi., 562; and xv., 105, on which passages see the notes of Drakenborch). Such an accusative is generally changed into the nominative, and the participle is made to agree with it in gender and number; e. g., virtus laudanda est, virtue must be praised, or, we must praise virtue; omnes captivi occidendi sunt, all the prisoners must be put to death, or, we must put to death, &c.; haec via tibi ineunda (ingredienda) est, you must take this road, or, this road must be taken by you.

Hence it is better to say, quoniam aeternae poenae in morte timendae sunt, than aeternas quoniam poenas in morte timendum est, as we read in Lucretius, i., 112. The only passages in which Cicero joins an accusative of the object with such a participle, are the following: Cat. Maj., 2, Volumus sane, nisi molestum est, Cato, tamquam longam aliquam viam confeceris, quam nobis quoque ingrediendum sit, istuc, quo pervenisti, videre quale sit; and Fragm., p. Scaur., 13, Obliviscendum nobis putatis matrum in liberos, virorum in uxores scelera? Comp. Quintil., iv., 5, 17, Quod tamen nemo sic accipiet, ut omnia credat audendum.

Quum suo curque judicio sit utendum, difficile factu est, me

id sentire semper, quod tu velis, Cic., de Nat. Deor., iii., 1.

Diligentia in omnibus rebus plurimum valet: haec praeci· pue colenda est nobis, haec semper adhibenda, Cic., de Orat., ii., 35.

[ 650.] Note 1.-The participle in dus never has the signification of possibility in classical prose, for although we frequently read in Cicero's work de Officiis, intelligendum est, in the sense of intelligitur or facile potest intelligi, still it implies, at the same time, that it is proper or becoming to see or understand. In like manner, a kind of moral obligation is expressed; in Verr., iv., 59, hi qui hospites ad ea quae visenda sunt ducere solent, the things to be seen, the curiosities of towns; and iv., 60, longum est commemorare, quae apud quosque visenda sunt tota Asia et Graecia. A similar obligation is expressed in the following passages; Cic., de Off., i., 31, si Circe et Calyp so mulieres appellandae sunt; de Fin., iii., 2, quasi heluari libris, si hoc verbo in tam praeclara re utendum est; Tusc., i., 1, jam illa, quae natura, non litteris assecuti sunt (Romani), neque cum Graecia, neque ulla cum gente sunt conferenda; i. e., conferri debent. In classical prose it signifies possibility only when joined with the particle vir (compare Bremi on Nep., Att., 18); e. g., Cic., de Orat., i., 21, vix optandum nobis videbatur; Caes., Bell. Gall., v., 28, vix erat credendum, equivalent to vix credi poterat. Writers of the subsequent period use it in this sense with negative particles, and this use was extended by still later writers, who employ the participle fut. pass. in the sense of possibility as well as in that of necessity,

[ 651.] Note 2.-Ab with the ablative is sometimes found in Cicero with the participle future pass. instead of the dative. In some cases he adopts this construction for particular reasons; as, p. Leg. Man., 2, aguntur bona multorum civium, quibus est a vobis et ipsorum et rei publicae causa consulendum, for the two datives quibus vobis might, for a moment, prevent our understanding the passage, p. Muren., 26, § 54; and p. Planc., 3, § 8, on account of the parallel ab which precedes; and p. Milon., in fin., fortem et a vobis conservandum virum, since the dative vobis might be taken as a dati vus commodi (comp., also, p. Sext., 18, § 41). Sometimes, however, ab is used without any special reason; as, ad Fam., xiii., 16, eos a se observandos et colendos putabat; ad Att., x., 4, patris lenitas amanda potius ab illo quam tam crudeliter negligenda; p. Rab., 2, sic enim existimare debetis, rem nullam majorem, magis periculosam, magis ab omnibus vobis providendam, ad populum Romanum esse delatam; in Rull., ii., 35, non eos in deorum immortalium numero venerandos a vobis et colendos putatis? p. Leg. Man., 12, atque haec a me in dicendo praetereunda non sunt. Hence we are inclined to think that no alteration is needed in the passage of the same oration: ne forte a vobis, quae diligentissime providenda sunt, contemnenda esse videantur. But these are all the passages of Cicero, and their number is very small in comparison with the very numerous instances in which the rule is observed. We mention this to prevent beginners from believing that these exceptions are frequent, because three happen to occur in one oration.

[§ 652.] 10. In the remaining cases this participle has, likewise, occasionally the signification of necessity (e. g., Cic., Philip., iii., 4, a L. Bruto, principe hujus maxime conservandi generis et nominis); but it much more frequently supplies the place of the participle present passive, that s, it has the meaning of a continued passive state; e. g., occupatus sum in litteris scribendis, in letters which are being written; peritus rei publicae regendae. A reference

to future time, also, may be implied, but this arises from the connexion, and not from the participle itself; e. g., consilium libertatis recuperandae; missus erat ad naves comparandas. For the rest, see the chapter on the gerund.

[ 653.] Note.-With the verbs dare and tradere, mittere, concedere, and permittere, accipere, and suscipere, locare and conducere, and others of a similar meaning, the purpose for which anything is given, sent, &c., is expressed passively by the future participle; e. g., rex Harpago Cyrum infantem occidendum tradidit, to be killed; Cicero, Clodius uberrimas provincias vexandas diripiendasque consulibus permisit; demus nos philosophiae excolendos Lentulus attribuit nos trucidandos Cethego, ceteros cives interficiendos Gabinio, urbem inflammandam Cassio, totam Italiam vastandam diripiendamque Catilinae; quattuor columnas locavit dealbandas, ceteras aedificandas; conduxerat columnas faciendas; Horace, haec porcis comedenda relinques. But the same may be expressed actively by means of ad with the gerund; e. g., Scaevola nemini se ad docendum dabat; Caesar oppidum ad diripiendum militibus concessit; auctores nobis propositi sunt ad imitandum. (The poets use the infinitive active; as, Horat., Carm., i., 26, Tristitiam et metus tradam protervis in mare Caspium portare ventis; in prose it is a rare exception, and occurs only in the phrase bibere dare, in Cic., Tusc., i., 26; or, ministrare, in Terent., Andr., iii., 2, 4.) The construction of curare with the same participle also deserves to be noticed; e. g., Conon muros dirutos a Lysandro reficiendos curavit, he ordered them to be restored, or had them restored; Fabricius perfugam reducendum curavit ad Pyrrhum, he ordered him to be taken back; funus ei satis amplum faciendum curavi, I had him honourably buried. In the silver age we also find the expression habeo faciendum, I have to do, or must do; e. g., Plin., Hist. Nat., Praef., huic epistolae subjunxi, quid singulis contineatur libris, ne perlegendos eos haberes; Tacit., Ann., xiv., 44, si nunc primum statuendum haberemus. Habeo facere, I can do, occurs in Cicero. See § 562.

[§ 654.] 11. This participle should properly be formed only from active transitive verbs, but it is formed also from deponents which have a transitive meaning; e. g., in imitando hoc scriptore, i. e., if this writer is imitated. Of intransitive verbs, however, only the neuter of this participle is used with est, erat, &c.; e. g., quiescendum est, dormiendum, eundum est.

CHAPTER LXXXII.

USE OF THE GERUND.

[§ 655.] 1. THE gerund is in form nothing else than the four oblique cases of the neuter of the participle future passive. It governs the case of its verb, and with regard to its signification it supplies the place of a declinable infinitive present active, and is a verbal substantive, just as in English the present participle is used as a verbal substantive. Thus we find the dative in Quintilian, xi., 2, 35.

illud ediscendo scribendoque commune est, this is common to learning by heart and writing; the ablative in Cicero, Tusc., iii., 7, discrepat a timendo confidere; Lael., 27, amicitia dicta est ab amando. Examples of the genitive are given above, § 425. The accusative presents a difference from the infinitive, for the latter, which is also used as an accusative (§ 597), has the power of an abstract noun, whereas the gerund expresses a real action; e. g., Senec., de Benef., v., 10, multum interest inter dare et accipere; but, on the other hand, Cic., de Fin., iii., 20, Non solum ad discendum propensi sumus, sed etiam ad docendum.

[§ 656.] 2. The relation of the gerund to the real participle future passive is this: as the gerund has an active meaning, e. g., consilium scribendi, the design of writing or to write, it may have an accusative as its object; as, consilium scribendi epistolam, and this construction may, without any change of meaning, be changed into the passive: consilium scribendae epistolae, the design of a letter to be written, or, that a letter should be written. The accusative is thus always changed into the case in which the gerund stood. This change into the passive may take place wherever no ambiguity is likely to arise; i. e., wherever the gender is distinguishable; hence it generally does not take place when the accusative, dependent upon the gerund, is the neuter of a pronoun or adjective; e. g., studium illud efficiendi, cupido plura cognoscendi, not illius efficiendi, or plurium cognoscendorum, because it would be impossible to see whether the genitives illius and plurium are masculine or neuter. Hence it is better to say lex appellata est a suum cuique tribuendo, than a suo cuique tribuendo. But, independently of this reason, the change of the active construction into the passive, with the participle future (which modern grammarians call gerundivum, to distinguish it from the gerund), is less frequent in some writers, Livy and Curtius for example, than in others.

[ 657.] Note 1.-The passive construction is also found with utor, fruor, fungor, and potior, because these verbs were originally joined with an accusative, and sometimes are still so used in our writers. (See § 465.) Hence we read in Cicero, de Fin., i., 3, sapientia non paranda nobis solum, sed etiam fruenda est; de Off., ii., 12, justitiae fruendae causa videntur olim bene morati reges constituti; de Off., i., 8, expetuntur autem divitiae quum ad usus vitae necessarios, tum ad perfruendas voluptates; Tusc., iii., 7, oculus probe affectus ad suum munus fungendum; in Verr., ii., 18, omnia bona ei uten. da ac possidenda tradiderat ; Caes., Bell. Gall., iii., 6, hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum venerant; and thus we very frequently find in Livy and Curtius, spes potiundae urbis, petrae. As an exception, the same occurs