mina, ilia, armamenta, impedimenta, utensilia, induvrae exuviae, manubiae, parietinae, reliquiae, sentes, vepres, virgulta, bellaria, crepundia, scruta, donaria, lautia, inferiae, justa, serta, compedes, verbera, grates, lamenta, minae, preces, dirae, ambages, argutiae, deliciae, divitiae, facetiae, nugae, gerrae, quisquiliae, insidiae, praestigiae, tricae. To these we may add some other but similar ideas, which are more frequently expressed by the plural than the singular; as, angustiae, blanditiae, illecebrae, ineptiae, minutiae, latebrae, salebrae.

[§ 94.] B. The following words are used in Latin in the plural, because they denote things composed of several parts, whereas we frequently express the same things in the singular: Altaria (altare is less common), arma, moenia, bigae, trigae, quadrigae (in the so-called Silver Age the singular also was used, the chariot being the main thing thought of), cancelli and clathri, casses and plagae, exequiae, fides (a lyre, properly the strings, which were also called nervi), fores and valvae, loculi, phalerae, salinae, scalae, scopae, codicilli, pugillares, tabulae, cerae, clunes and nates. The meaning of the plural is more obscure in the following words: cervices, fauces, clitellae, cunae, cunabula and incunabula, inimicitiae (is used by Cicero in the singular only, as expressing a philosophical idea, otherwise it is a plurale tantum), induciae, nuptiae, obices, pantices, praecordia (orum), sordes, tenebrae.

It is curious that the plural of some of the words of this class expresses also a plurality of the same things of which the plurale tantum indicates but one, e. g., that fauces signifies not only "a throat," but "several throats," "mouths." In this case the distributive numerals are used instead of cardinal ones. (See § 119.)

or

[§ 95.] The names of certain days in the Roman calendar are plurals; as, calendae, nonae, idus, nundinae, and feriae; so, also, the names of festivals and festive games (like ludi itself); e. g., Bacchanalia, Floralia, Saturnalia, Olympia, and natalicia, sponsalia and repotia; farther, many names of towns, such as Athenae, Thebae, Gades, the neuters Arbela, Bactra, Leuctra, and a considerable number of names of towns which are properly names of

* In ancient Latin prose, i. e., especially in Cicero, it is a plurale tantum; for cervicem, in Cic., in Verr., v., 42, is only a misprint in the modern editions; but the poets, and, after the Augustan age, prose writers also, use the word in the singular. (Comp. Quintil. viii., 3, 35.)

the people; as, Delphi, Leontini, Parisii, Treviri. Such plural names of nations are often used for that of the country they inhabit. Horace, for example, says, tollor in arduos Sabinos, i. e., into the high country of the Sabines. (See § 680.)

[§ 96.] Some words, which are apparently the same, vary in meaning according to their number, which is sometimes accompanied by a difference of gender. Lustrum is a period of five years, and lustra, dens of wild beasts; fastus, us, plur. fastūs, pride, and fasti, the calendar; forum, market, and fori, passages; tempus, time, and tempora (sometimes tempus also), the temples of the head.

In other words the plural has a different meaning from the singular, though one nearly allied to it, and without giving up the meaning of the singular for the plural. e. g. :

SINGULAR.

Aedes, a temple.

Aqua, water.
Auxilium, help.

Bonum, something good.
Carcer, a prison.

Castrum, a fort. [man forum.
Comitium, a part of the Ro-
Copia, abundance.
Cupedia, daintiness.
Epulum, a solemn feast.
Facultas, power to do some-
thing.

Fortuna, fortune.
Hortus, a garden.

[bet.

Littera, letter of the alpha

Ludus, pastime.

Naris, nostril.

Natalis (dies), birthday.

(Ops, obsol.) Opis, help.

Opes, power, wealth.

Opera, labour.

Operae, workmen.

Pars, a part.

Partes, (commonly) a party.

Rostrum, a beak, pointed Rostra, the raised place from

head of a ship.

which the orators spoke.

Sal, salt.

Sales, witticisms.

CHAPTER XXIII.

IRREGULAR DECLENSION.- HETEROCLITA.-HETEROGENEA,

[§ 97.] B. THE second kind of irregularity in the declension of substantives consists in too great an abundance of forms. It happens either that, although there is but one nominative, the other cases have two forms after different declensions, or that both the nominative, and all the other cases, have two different forms. If, owing to the different terminations, such a word has, at the same time, different genders, it is called a heterogenes; if it has merely different forms, it is called a heterocliton. It must, however, be observed that there are only very few words in which the practice of good prose does not give preference to one of the forms, and in the following list we shall always put the preferable form first.

Forms of different declensions are found with the word jugĕrum; for, besides the ablative sing. and plur. jūgero and jugeris, poets, for metrical reasons, use jugere and jugeribus. Some names of trees in us, viz., cupressus, ficus, laurus, pinus, besides the forms of the second declension, also take those of the fourth in us and u, i. e., in the genit. and ablat. singular, and in the nom. and accus. plural, e. g., laurus (after the second and fourth declension), gen. lauri and laurus, dat. lauro, acc. laurum, voc. laure, abl. lauro and lauru. Nom. plur. lauri and laurus, gen. laurorum, dat. and abl. lauris, accus. lauros and laurus, voc. lauri. In other names of trees the second declension greatly predominates, except quercus, which follows the fourth entirely.* The same is the case with colus, a distaff; but the cases in i, orum, is, do not exist, perhaps only accidentally; for, according to the ancient grammarians, the word may follow both the second and fourth declensions. Respecting senatus, tumultus, gen. ūs and i, see § 81. Vas, vasis, a vessel, sometimes makes the genit. vasi, from vasum, which is not altogether out of use. The plural ilia has iliorum and iliis along with ilium and ilibus.

[Consult, on this subject, Priscian, p. 711 and 1264. Serv., ad Virg., Ecl., ii., 54. Bentley, ad Horat., Od., ii., 15, 5. Schneider, L. G., vol. iii. p. 472.]-Am. Ed.

[§ 98.] Words which have different forms in the nominative as well as other cases may follow the same declension in either case; as, balteus and balteum, callus and callum, clipeus and clipeum (especially a consecrated shield), carrus and carrum, commentarius and commentarium, cubitus and cubitum, pileum and pileus, baculum and baculus, palatum and palatus, jugulum and jugulus, catinus, catillus, and catinum, catillum; and some names of plants; as, lupinus and lupinum, papyrus and papyrum, porrum and porrus: or they follow different declensions; as,

Tonitrus, us (tonitru).

Fames, is, and requies, ētis, take the forms of the fifth declension: fames makes the ablat. fame, and requies has requiem and requie, besides requietem and requiete. It is of comparatively frequent occurrence that substantives have different forms both of the first and fifth declensions;* as, barbaria, barbaries; luxuria, es; duritia, es; materia, es; mollitia, es; segnitia, es (the forms after the fifth declension commonly occur only in the nom., acc., and abl.), and that verbal substantives of the fourth declension have a second form in um, i, like the participle of the perfect; as, conatus and conatum, eventus and eventum, praetextus and praetextum, suggestus and suggestum.

[§ 99.] To this class belong those substantives which, in the plural, assume a different gender and a different form, in some instances, along with the regular one:

1. Masculines which in the plural become neuters: jocus, plur. joci and joca (of pretty equal authority, though joca is better established by the practice of Cicero); locus, plur. loci (generally passages in books or subjects for investigation and discussion = topics) and loca (in the common sense of "places," whence the difference is briefly expressed thus: loci librorum, loca terrarum). The poets use sibila for sibili; and of intubus and tartarus they make the plural intuba and tartara.

2. Feminines which in the plural become neuters: carbasus, a species of flax, plur. carbasi and carbasa, sails made of it; astrea, plur. astreae and astrea, orum; margarita, plur. margaritae, and in Tacitus also, margarita, orum.

3. The following neuters become (a) Masculines: coelum, coeli; siser, siseres; porrum (which is much more frequent in the singular than porrus), porri; (b) Feminines:

* [Bopp thinks that the ē in the Latin fifth declension, as in almost every instance an i precedes it, has been changed from a by the influence of this i. This may serve, according to him, to explain why we have occasionally two forms for the nominative, one of the fifth and the other of the first declension; the latter of these will follow, therefore, the analogy of the Greek, and allow a to remain unaltered before i, as in oopía. Tho Ionic form, on the other hand, follows the Zend; as, σogin.]-Am. Ed.