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SOFT WATER.

THE WELCOME GUEST.

grains, taking up no more than 2 grains of this
substance. This earthy impregnation is said to.
give the water 2 degrees of hardness. But
chalk waters are often found of 12, 16, or even
20 degrees of hardness. In such cases the true
solvent of the carbonate of lime, or at least of
the excess above 2 grains, is carbonic acid gas,
which is found in all natural waters. The sol-
vent power of carbonic acid may be easily de-

WATER is said to be hard, when it holds in solution certain earthy salts that decompose soap, and so render it unfit for washing; it is said to be soft when it contains none of these destructive compounds. Soft water being far preferable to hard water for most domestic purposes, it is worth while to inquire into the immediate cause of hardness, and the means avail-monstrated by experiment. Let a current of able for ridding ordinary water of this objectionable quality. This inquiry will involve the consideration of a variety of interesting facts pertaining to the chemistry of the wash-tub and water-butt.

Perfectly pure water is only to be met with in the laboratory of the chemist, where it is formed synthetically by exploding a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen gases; but water sufficiently pure for all practical purposes may be obtained by melting bright ice, or by subjecting any kind of water to distillation. All natural waters contain foreign substances that have been washed out of the earth or the atmosphere. Sea-water holds in solution various saline compounds. The water which falls in rain is contaminated by soluble gases; that which rises in springs, by earthy matters; and that which flows in rivers, by organic as well The great solvent as inorganic impurities. power of water is opposed to its occurrence in nature, in a state of absolute purity.

this gas pass through lime water, that is, water
holding pure lime (oxide of calcium) in solution.
The transparent liquid will at first become
milky, from the formation of insoluble car-
bonate of lime, which remains suspended as
a very fine powder; but if the current of
carbonic acid be continued, the milkiness will
gradually disappear and the liquid will again
become clear. The finely divided chalk com-
bines with a second dose of carbonic acid, and
becomes readily soluble as a bicarbonate of
lime, a salt which has never yet been procured
in a solid state. This experiment illustrates
the beautiful chemical law of combination in
definite and invariable proportions; for let 28-16
represent the proportion of lime held in solution
in the original liquid, then 22 will be the pro-
portion of carbonic acid which combines with
the lime to form chalk, and 22 will also be the
proportion of carbonic acid required to trans-
form the insoluble carbonate into a soluble bi-
carbonate. According to the atomic theory, a
single atom of lime unites with one atom of
carbonic acid to form an atom of chalk; and
with two atoms of carbonic acid to form an
atom of bicarbonate of lime.

The hardness of spring and river water is due to the presence of salts of lime and magnesia in solution. The carbonate of lime (chalk), a substance which underlies or forms the surHaving examined into the conditions under face of the south-eastern portion of England, is the chief hardener of the waters around the which chalk is dissolved by water, let us now metropolis. Carbonate of lime in water decom-glance at some of the physical and chemical poses about ten times its weight of soap, and methods of softening water holding this subother lime salts destroy soap in proportion to stance in solution. Forty-five years ago Dr. the lime they contain; the soluble soap con- Dalton recommended exposure to the atmosphere When such taining soda being converted into an insoluble as a means of softening the spring-water used In by manufacturers for washing. and useless compound containing lime. washing with hard water, the water is softened, water is exposed for some time in a reservoir or deprived of lime, at the expense of the soap. with a large surface, the excess of carbonic acid The lime in 100 gallons of Thames water in gas escapes, and carbonate of lime is precipitated. this way occasions the destruction of no less To ascertain the rate at which water is softened than 34 ounces of soap, before any portion of by this plan, Dr. Clark put about three inches this useful compound becomes available as a depth of spring water, of 17.5 degrees of harddetergent. A salt of magnesia by itself decom-ness, into a large glass pan. Thus exposed, he poses soap very quickly; but when magnesia occurs in solution with lime, as is often the case, it loses its destructive power and merely curdles a portion of the soap. By Dr. Clark's test, which consists in adding measured quanHard chalk waters may also be softened by tities of an alcoholic solution of soap to a certain measure of any water to be examined, till the agency of heat. On boiling the hard water, the soap begins to give a lather, the proportion the excess of carbonic acid, which renders the of earthy salt or degree of hardness may be chalk soluble, escapes very rapidly, in consereadily ascertained. Each degree of hardness, quence of which the whole of the chalk, with according to the mode of expressing this qua- the exception of the 2 grains to the gallon held lity now generally adopted, is as much hard-in solution by the water itself, is separated as a ness as a grain of chalk, or the lime, or the calcium, in a grain of chalk, would produce in a gallon of water by whatever means it might be dissolved.

Pure water is capable of dissolving only a very, minute quantity of carbonate of lime; one gallon of water, in weight equal to 70,000

VOL. I.

found the water to soften at the rate of about a quarter of a degree per day, and to require, for producing a lather with 100 gallons of it, about three ounces less of curd soap at the end of each week.

fine powder.

An artificially-prepared hard water, containing 134 grains of carbonate of lime to the gallon, was observed to decrease from 13.5 to 112 degrees of hardness, merely by heating it in a kettle to the boiling point. Boiling for five minutes reduced the hardness to 6-3 degrees, fifteen minutes to 44 degrees,

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No. 2.

thirty minutes to 26 degrees, and one hour to in fact, ordinary hard water. If we now add 2-4 degrees. The bicarbonate of lime, or gas- a little fresh lime-water to this liquid, the dissolved chalk, gives therefore only temporary milkiness, which was destroyed by the excess hardness to the water, curable by boiling. of gas, reappears, and will continue until the Other salts of lime, such as the sulphate finely-divided chalk which occasions it subsides, (gypsum), which are dissolved in water without leaving clear water above. This water, if the the intervention of carbonic acid, impart per- proper quantity of lime-water has been used manent hardness, or rather, hardness only as a reagent, will be free from bicarbonate curable by chemical treatment. Mere boiling of lime, free from caustic lime, and free from will have no softening effect on water hardened chalk, except the small proportion of 2 grains by gypsum; but if a little soda be added to such to the gallon, which we keep out of account water during the boiling, the lime of the gypsum for the sake of simplicity. The following table will be precipitated as an insoluble carbonate. will, perhaps, render the chemistry of the The carbonate of soda is a cheap salt, and is softening process more intelligible:— generally employed by laundresses to soften water for washing. Indeed, this substance is used in a considerably larger proportion than Bicarbonate of Lime in the hard-water. is necessary to precipitate the hardening salts of lime, on its own account as a powerful deter- Lime-water containing Lime gent, particularly in the first boiling of the The reader will now be able to comprehend linen. The use of soda in washing would, how-the successive parts of the softening process, as ever, be gladly avoided if possible by most housekeepers, on account of its injurious action on the colours of certain prints, and the permanent yellow tinge and weakness of fibre which it may occasion even in white linens.

AGENTS.

PRODUCTS.

Jime......28.16) Chalk..50.16
Carb. Acid..22.00)
Carb. Acid..22.001
....28.16)

Chalk..50.16

detailed by Dr. Clark in a lecture delivered some three years ago before the Society of Arts. Let us suppose that the conductor of the process wishes to soften a moderate quantity of well-water from the chalk strata around the metropolis-say 400 gallons. This quantity would contain about 1lb of chalk, and would fill a vessel 4 feet square by 4 feet deep. He takes 9 ozs. of quicklime, made by burning chalk in a kiln, and converts it into a hydrate, or slacks it, by adding a little water. He then puts the slacked lime into a vessel large enough to contain the water to be softened, and gradually adds some of the water in order to form lime-water. At least 40 gallons are necessary for this purpose, for lime is very sparingly soluble. Having prepared his reagent, the conductor adds the rest of the water more freely; taking care to mix intimately the two liquids. The

The process of softening water invented by Professor Clark of Marischal College, Aberdeen, is simple and inexpensive, and might be brought into operation on a scale more than adequate for the supply of this great metropolis. It has been successfully carried out on a very large scale in the Plumstead Water-works, near Woolwich, for nearly five years. So great is the effect of this invention in softening, that whereas the hardening matter of 100 gallons of spring water, from wells or borings sunk in the chalk strata, will destroy 35 ounces of soap, the hardening matter remaining in 100 gallons of the same water, after being softened, will destroy only 5 ounces. The dogma of the homoeo-lime is put into the vessel first, because it has pathists that "like cures like" holds good in been found in practice that the chalk produced Dr. Clark's softening process, which is a chemi- in the process is more easily precipitated when cal one for expelling lime by lime. We have there is an excess of lime in the mixture. To said that the greater part of the chalk in hard determine when there has been enough water water is dissolved by carbonic acid, and have added to take up the last of the excess of lime, explained how this solvent may be got rid of by the conductor applies the silver test,-a solution exposure, or by the application of heat, so as to of nitrate of silver in twice-distilled water. He bring about the precipitation of the chalk. Now, puts a few drops of this liquid in a white tea-cup, it is obvious that if we can remove the gas in and gradually adds some of the water to be exaany other way, the chalk will be precipitated.mined; then, if there is an excess of lime, a It occurred to Dr. Clark that the excess of car-coloured precipitate will be formed; brown, when bonic acid might be removed by adding to the the excess is considerable, and yellow, when it is hard water a proper quantity of a base, which would form, with the acid, an insoluble salt. Such a base is lime. Accordingly caustic lime, either in the form of lime-water, milk-of-lime, or dry hydrate of lime, when added to hard water in sufficient quantity to neutralize the carbonic acid, removes the solvent, and becoming, at the same time, carbonate of lime, must precipitate together with that originally in solution. To remove a pound of chalk, enough lime must be added to form a second pound, by combining with the solvent of the first, consequently twice as much chalk is precipitated as was originally dissolved in the water. In the experiment of sending a current of carbonic acid through lime-water, we obtained, as a final result, a perfectly transparent liquid

slight. The final adjustment of the exact proportions of lime and water by means of this test can be made with great accuracy, and with very little trouble. At the conclusion of the process the chalk subsides, leaving the water above bright and soft. This precipitated chalk forms a very superior kind of commercial whiting.

When the water, subjected to this softening process, is contaminated by organic matter, a considerable proportion is precipitated with the chalk. This is a fact that cannot be questioned, as the chalk thrown down from contaminated water is much more coloured than that which is precipitated from a pure solution of bicarbonate of lime; while the softened water is much freer from colour than the unsoftened. Thus it ap

THE WELCOME GUEST.

pears, that by Dr. Clark's beautiful process, hopes and expectations. Mr. Punch, antici-
pating our taking a sight at him, had, with that
water is not only softened, but purified.
Many scientific men have predicted that Lon-malignant and spiteful ferocity which is the
Mr. Punch, in fact, had
don will one day be supplied with pure and soft distinguishing trait of his character, practically
water, obtained from deep wells sunk in the taken a sight at us.
chalk strata. Be this as it may, no one will carefully, laboriously, and with diabolical malice
question the great advantages attending the use prepense, closed up every crack and crevice
of soft water for the common purposes of life. through which an inquiring eye could peep.
The softer the water, the better it is adapted
for washing with soap, for cleansing the body,
for making tea, coffee, and soup; for cooking all
kinds of vegetables; and, in short, for nearly
every domestic use.

J. C. BROUGH.

OUR DRINKING FOUNTAIN.

BY ANDREW HALLIDAY.

The boys were, of course, indignant at what might fairly be regarded as a tax upon knowledge. It was a doubtful question among them for fully a quarter of an hour, whether, under the highly aggravating circumstances, it would not be justifiable, and at the same time highly laudable, to lay siege to Mr. Punch's castle, and take it by assault. But other counsels prevailed. After considerable deliberation, it seemed to be agreed by common consent, that the tactics which promised to be at the same time safest and most successful, would be quietly to effect breeches at different parts of the castle wall. The youthful sappers and miners at once set to work with their clasp knives, the pegs of their tops, and, failing more efficient weapons, their finger nails. That they were not eventually successful in effecting several breeches, was, I believe, wholly and entirely due to the appearance of a force, two down one morn-in number, of their hereditary enemies, who suddenly made a sortie from a neighbouring station-house, and charged upon them with The siege was raised in an terrible effect. instant, and Mr. Punch was left in quiet possession of his mysterious castle.

OME little time
ago thered brick
wall which runs
down the sunny
side of our street
broke out into
eruption just
about the mid-
dle. I walked

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ing, and found
the pavement
strewed with
bricks and lime;

I walked up
again in the

The

The army of gamins was rallied and led evening, and discovered on the spot a Punch-back to the walls again and again; but no and-Judy-like erection of boards, enclosing advantage, strategical or otherwise, was gained about two square yards of the pavement. until late in the afternoon, when what might I need not say that by this time the boys be called the postern gate of the castle was of the neighbourhood had collected round the seen to open. The army of observation made spot to gratify that craving for knowledge and a combined rush to reconnoitre; but before information which is happily so deeply im- they could get near enough, Mr. Punch himplanted in the juvenile breast. At least a dozen self stepped out, and with spiteful haste shut pairs of eyes were brought to bear upon the and padlocked the postern gate behind him. chinks and knot-holes of the boards, to discover Mr. Punch was immediately saluted with a what was going on within. I am not ashamed yell of baffled rage and disappointment; and to say that the dozen was made a baker's one I really think he would have sustained violence by my own pair. Well, there was the hole in had any of the malevolence of his conduct the wall, and there lay the bricks and the lime; been visible in his personal appearance. There was nothing and, looking up, I could descry a tarpaulin fact is, the mildness of Mr. Punch's appearthrown over the top by way of a roof. Some-ance disarmed us all. thing of interest and importance would un- malicious, nothing mysterious, nothing diabodoubtedly be going on there to-morrow. The lical, nothing even in the way of deformity boys evidently consoled themselves with that about him. He was too old to admit of the reflection, as the pairs of eyes, one after another, possibility of his hanging himself out of his went off duty, in default of there being any first-floor window in vicious sport; too spiritless Mr. Punch, in fact, duty to perform beyond gazing at the hole in and decrepid to knock anybody or anythingthe wall, which, at present, was as impenetrable even a nail-on the head. as the sphynx. In the morning the sound of was an aged bricklayer in his shirt-sleeves, with the pickaxe and the trowel could be distinctly a tin can, which had contained his tea, slung heard in the enclosure. Had Mr. Punch, during over his shoulder, a blue pocket-handkerchief, the night, overcome his wife, the beadle, the enshrouding probably the remnants of his bread hangman, and the other unmentionable party and butter, in one hand, and a trowel in the who figures in his tragedy, and was he now en- other. How could such a person have been tombing them altogether in that wall? The guilty of the deliberate malice of closing updozen eyes of the night before had brought two with the greatest painstaking, as was evidentor three dozen more eyes, as sharp as, if not every crack and crevice of the outer wall which sharper than, themselves; and there also was enclosed that mystery? I could only account my pair, ready to take a stereoscopic sight for the seeming wickedness by the charitable through the two knot-holes in the top plank supposition that Mr. Punch was a person of but one. But, alas for the vanity of human modest and retiring habits, who did not like to

be looked at. The physiognomy and outward man generally of Mr. Punch conveyed all that, and if it conveyed anything else, it was that he, Mr. Punch, had a wife at home, who, besides taking care of his wages, did not allow him to have a soul of his own.

conclusive. There was no getting over the buttons. The head of that man's department was plainly Mr. Charles Gilpin, and not Mr. Sidney Herbert. It is possible that the man thanks his stars every day of his life that it is so.

It was not at all clear at first what the misI cannot exactly say how it came about; but sion of this person might be. Was he placed in the course of that evening it was generally there to drink the water, on the principle that represented in the street, that the hoarding in Admiral Byng was shot, to encourage the the middle of the red brick-wall portended a others? Was he a lowly enthusiast in the drinking fountain. The rumour received con- cause of temperance come there to delight his firmation on the following morning from a eyes with the beneficial effects of free trade in hand-bill pasted upon the postern gate, to the the pure element? Did he carry a sly bottle of effect that a meeting would take place at a gin in his pocket, to accommodate those who neighbouring hall, to discuss drinking fountains might not object to filtered water, provided it in general, and the one in the course of erection were properly qualified? or was he there to in that neighbourhood in particular. I have no wipe the mugs and keep the boys in order? reason to doubt that that meeting took place; One thing was obvious from the first-he was but whether the working-men, who were invited there in an official capacity, for the policeman to "rally round the movement," did really rally talked to him in a friendly manner, and never round the movement on that occasion, I am conducted himself towards him-the individual wholly unable to say. The day arrived when in grey-as if it were intended or contemplated the castle of Mr. Punch disappeared like the that he should move on, either then or at any palace of Aladdin. During the watches of a subsequent period. It was the fate of this certain night-probably when it rained and second mystery to be solved as well as the first; there was no one out of doors-Mr. Punch ap- and the fact leads me to entertain a confident plied friction to his magic lamp, and, presto, the hope that we shall, one of these days, know who provoking structure of uprights and nine-inch was the Man in the Iron Mask, who wrote the deals had flown away. Next morning the letters of Junius, and who pencilled the correcdrinking fountain "stood confessed." In the tions of Mr. Payne Collier's folio edition of distance it looked wonderfully like one of those Shakespere. The individual who, in his perspecimen fire-stoves which you see exhibited in sonal appearance, combined the outward attrithe vaults of the Crystal Palace. The cloud of butes of the War-Office and the Poor-Law admiring gamins clustered round it might have Board, was, however, more immediately conbeen so many cats, or monkeys, snatching nected with the latter department of the public chesnuts from its red-hot bars. The oft service, and had been placed there to make a defeated army of inquiring minds had con- daily return of the drinkers at the fountain. Now quered at length. The battle, often lost, had that I have witnessed him in the performance been won at last; and here was filtered water of this task, I know how to estimate the combequeathed from sire to son in perpetuity. On putations of those statists who profess to tell obtaining a full view of the fountain, as well as us how many people were on Epsom Downs on it was possible for the crowd of unkempt heads the Derby-day, and how many attend the bands which obscured its base, I found myself men- in the Parks on Sunday. Can Mr. Bardsley, tally reporting that it was-a "neat structure." the grocer over the way, tell you how many If Mr. Punch had enveloped himself in mystery, flies get into the mouth of his sugar-cask every his mysteriousness had, at least, been to some day? If so, the military-looking person in purpose. I could not believe then, and I can- workhouse grey may be able faithfully to renot believe now, that a person of so unpro- port how many persons, boys included, daily mising an appearance as Mr. Punch could have partake of the waters of our Drinking Foun played any important part in calling into exist-tain. Why, the boys in this street-and their ence a structure of such undeniable neatness. My opinion, upon due reflection, is, that the pretty little arrangement of red marble was simply bricklaid by Mr. Punch. If I could have given Mr. Punch credit for anything, I might, possibly, have given him credit for the shell, which is obviously turned the wrong way, being placed in an apologetic sort of attitude over the mouth of the fountain, as if it were continually about to yawn, and wished to show its breeding.

The fountain no sooner began to yawn and hold its hand over its mouth, than there sprung up beside it a military-looking person in a suit of grey. The person was evidently military; but on close inspection the grey suit as evidently betrayed another venerable institution of the State the Workhouse. The cut and colour of the grey were clearly incompatible with a stiff back and a moustache; but the buttons were

name is legion-do nothing all day long but
drink at that fountain. My only wonder is
that they don't overflow or drown, or extend to
extraordinary dimensions, or burst.
I only
hope when they grow up they will not evince a
taste for malt, or spirituous liquors, on the
same scale. Our Drinking Fountain, then, was
a favourite institution with the juvenile popu-
lation from the very first. The inhabitants of
more mature years, with that calmness of mind
which age and experience confer, did not, I am
bound to say, show quite so violent an appre-
ciation of "the boon." Their feeling on the
subject seemed to partake of that spirit of de-
rision which Remus is said to have exhibited
when he first set eyes on the wall of his bro-
ther Romulus, and which, as history informs
us, provoked the founder of Rome to punch his
brother's head, with fatal consequences. The
elders of the neighbourhood looked upon the

A HINT.

drinking fountain not absolutely in a malignant boys. They cluster round it in swarms all day spirit, but yet not with approval. I may say, long, and their intense appreciation of its merits they tolerated it. It was some considerable is perhaps the only drawback in connection with time before they could make up their minds to the institution. That their elders fully estimate take a drink. They stopped to see the boys the boon that has been conferred upon them is drink, but they would as soon have thought of now put beyond a doubt in my mind by an incidrinking themselves as of joining in the game dent that occurred a few mornings ago. It was of hop-scotch, or prisoners' bars, which was discovered that one of the mugs had been going on on the pavement. The drinking wrenched away from the chain in the night, fountain was evidently regarded by mature possibly by some drunken rioter. The intellieyes as a toy, something very well adapted for gence brought to the spot an excited crowd of the amusement of children, but altogether be- the neighbours, men, women and children, who, neath the dignity of mature age. For Mature there and then, with one voice vowed and swore, Age there was the Red Lion at the corner; and in terms which I should not care to repeat, that at the bar of the Red Lion the cynicism of if they caught the desecrator and spoliator of Mature Age found full vent. Mature Age, lean- their fountain, they would incontinently deal ing its elbows on the pewter altar of that with him without the intervention of magistemple of Bacchus, wished satirically that they trate, judge, or jury, and Lynch him on the would turn on Mr. Groggins' beer at the foun- opposite lamp-post. tain, or at least, that they would throw a dash of gin into the water. Mr. Groggins smiled grimly at these jokes; and when persons of inquiring minds seriously asked him if the THE present is pre-eminently an advertising drinking fountain was not doing him, Mr. age;-an age in which every man is under the Groggins, serious harm in his trade, he would impression that he possesses a light, and is dereply facetiously that, on the contrary, it was termined that it shall not be hidden under a doing him a great deal of good, for the people bushel. Making every allowance for the inwho partook of the water invariably came to the crease of population, there never was a period Red Lion to take the taste out of their mouths. in our country's history when we could boast of Thus are good works ever made the gibe of the such a number of geniuses and heroes, and all envious and the malicious. Thus it is that Envy, of them so perfectly conscious of their value. Malice, and uncharitableness basely insinuate There is no doubt,-no indecision,-no perishing that their neighbour, Faith, may be a very reli- of neglect,-no waiting for tardy recognition gious woman; but that there is no doubt she of merit. Field marshals, jugglers, adaptdrinks-not, of course, at the drinking fountain. ers of plays, commission agents, bill disBut "Truth is great, and will prevail," as the counters, builders, contractors, admirals, memLatin proverb hath it. The Drinking Fountain, bers of Parliament, poets, painters-whether of deriving its refreshing stream from the well, at houses or the Royal Academy-horse-riders, the bottom of which Truth is said to reside, free and statesmen,-all come forward in the picof all taxes and rates-unless, perhaps, the water torial and biographical rate soon began to make a deep impression form, and claim a place, upon mature age, as well as upon ingenuous while living, in the temyouth. There it was, a mild, inoffensive entab-ple of modern celebrity. lature in the wall, with its hand bashfully before No sooner has a highlyits mouth, constantly giving forth a lingid gifted being made an stream, of which any one might partake from a intellectual investment, couple of enamelled iron mugs-standing in no than he begins to realise ; one's way, enlivening the monotony of that dreary brick wall-giving ever, asking no one for anything. How could it be otherwise than that the Drinking Fountain should come in time to claim and obtain universal respect? The women, ever foremost in good works, began to come with jugs for a supply of the water, which was found to be of a quality well-adapted for extracting the virtue from tea. Presently, we saw workmen stop to refresh themselves with a draught. People of the better class, too, rested on their city pilgrimages to drink. Ladies with children daintily approached the watergiving shell, and handed draughts to their charges all round. Old gentlemen halted to look on and moralize in a pleasant strain, and occasionally to taste the water, but rather gingerly in some instances, the unsteadiness of their hands seeming to convict them of being addicted to beverages of a nature far less mild. It is more than nine days since our Drinking Fountain was unveiled and began to flow, but it has not yet ceased to be a wonder among the

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to dig up the seed at noon which he has planted in the morning, and see how far it has sprouted. In the race for popular appreciation, and the clamour of self-assertion, all considerations of dignity are utterly forgotten, and Mr., or, as he is sometimes designated, Signor Flipflap, the supple rope-dancer-finds himself between the Bishop of Donnybrook and the Lord High Beadle of England. They are all public men. The portrait galleries of the time are catholic-highly catholic-in their tastes; what is one man's hero is another man's valet ;-and one picture is as good as another, and better. These are the principles that regulate the supply of highly-gifted beings to the representative Walhallas of private life; and the supply has it in its power to mould and direct the demand.

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