would open as our books. The average size was probably not much smaller than this page. The inside pages or leaves were provided with a slight raised rim about the margin, so that the enclosed surfaces, which were coated with a thin layer of wax, would not rub. On these surfaces the writing was done with the pointed end of a stilus of metal or bone; the other end of the stilus was flattened, so that it could be used to rub the wax back over a word or line in which there was an error. The wax was usually black, and the writing showed the color of the underlying wood or ivory, which was white, or at least of a light tint. Tablets of two leaves (that is, with two outside pages and two pages prepared for writing) were called diptycha; of three leaves, with four pages for writing, triptycha; there were even pentaptycha, of five leaves, in which there were eight pages that could be written on. When the letter was finished, strong thread was passed through one or more perforations in the margin or even at the centre, then wound closely around the tablets and tied. Over the knot the seal of the sender was stamped in wax or in fine clay. As the handwriting within was often that of an amanuensis, who in most cases was a slave, the seal was of very great importance as a means of identification. For this reason when a letter was opened the thread was cut in such a way as to leave the seal undisturbed. These writing-tablets were so convenient that they continued in use to modern times. At Florence there is a waxen tablet of the year 1301.

In the time of Cicero writing-tablets were used for short letters; but longer communications were often written with a reed pen and ink upon paper prepared from the papyrus. Usually before they were written on, but sometimes afterwards, the pages of paper were pasted together at the sides, forming a long sheet, or roll. The writing was in columns, which were

parallel to the ends of the sheet, so that the lines ran in the direction of the length. The letter thus prepared was carefully rolled up, in much the same manner as books (libri) were at that time, and was then tied about the middle, a seal being placed over the knot.

(:

At the head of a letter stood the name of the sender in the nominative case, with the name of the person to whom it was addressed in the dative, usually accompanied also by the abbreviation S. D. (= salutem dicit, sends greeting '), or S. P. D., S. PLUR. D. (= salutem plurimam dicit, sends most cordial greeting'). In more formal correspondence pains was taken to give forenames and titles. At the beginning of the letter, S. V. B. E. V. (= si vales, bene est; valeo), or a similar formula was often placed. The close was frequently abrupt; sometimes vale or a like expression was added, with the date; the place of writing was given in the ablative. The outside address was of the simplest character, containing the name of the person to whom the letter was sent, in the dative case.

=

ii. CICERO'S CORRESPONDENCE.

Cicero did not publish his letters. They were given to the world probably by Tiro (see Vocab., and p. 19), arranged in several collections. Those extant comprise only a portion of the number once known. Mention is made of a collection of the letters to Caesar, which must have contained at least three books; and there were similar collections of the letters to Pompey, in at least four books, to M. Brutus, in nine books, and to Octavianus, in three; there was also a collection of letters to Hirtius. Of the letters which have been preserved, the first was written in the year 68 B. C.; the latest in 43, some months before Cicero's death. They vary in length from a few lines to several pages. They are grouped as follows:

'To his Friends' (ad Familiares, abbreviated ad Fam.); xvi. books. The title is inaccurate, because some of the letters were written to persons not included within the orator's circle of friends, and also because a number of them are not from Cicero, but addressed to him.

'To his brother Quintus' (ad Quintum Fratrem, ad Q. Fr.); III. books. The first letter is a rather formal discussion of the duties of a provincial magistrate, in sixteen chapters. 'To Atticus' (ad Atticum, ad Att.); xvI. books.

'To Marcus Brutus' (ad M. Brutum, ad Brut.); 11. books. At least two of the letters to Brutus appear to be forgeries.

The literary value of the letters, and their bearing on our knowledge of Cicero, have been alluded to in another connection (see pp. 20-22). Among noteworthy characteristics of the style are, the common yet delicate use of colloquial expressions, and the employment of language akin to that of comedy; the frequent introduction of Greek words and phrases, just as we often give a turn to a sentence with French or German; the coining of new words on the spur of the moment to suit a passing need; and the free use of superlatives and diminutives. As might be expected of a correspondent at once so sensitive, sympathetic, and vivacious as Cicero, the letters are varied with an ever-surprising richness of feeling and thought; and the variety of the matter is hardly greater than that of the manner of expression. They are pervaded by a breezy freshness that makes the surroundings and emotions of the writer as real to us as our own experiences. Hence it must always be that the more they are read the more they will be appreciated. But they are not simply entertaining or of general human interest; the light they throw on the inner political movements and social life of the time gives them a value as historical documents second to that of no other writings of the period.

IV. THE ROMAN GOVERNMENT IN CICERO'S

TIME.

The speeches and letters of Cicero are full of references to the organization and administration of the Roman state in his time. The following outline may be found helpful in grouping the scattered information which the reader of them will naturally acquire. It applies to the constitution after the time of Sulla. For the literature of the subject see the editor's "Fifty Topics in Roman Antiquities," pp. 35-37, 17, 18.

Who they were

CITIZENS

Division:

Free inhabitants of Rome.
Free inhabitants of Italy, who
must go to Rome if they
wished to vote.

-35 tribes, each tribe subdivided into 5 classes, each class into 2 centuries, = 350 centuries.

Registration:

- In the lists of the censors, by whom

a citizen was assigned to his tribe, class, and century.

Of the People.

Comitia Centuriata, an assembly by centuries, to elect consuls, praetors, censors.

Comitia Tributa, an assembly by tribes, to elect the lesser magistrates and enact laws, known as plebiscita.

Of Counsellors designated by appointment: - Senatus, containing about 600 members; charged with legislation upon foreign affairs, and matters of religion and finance.