were fixed up on their door-posts, or in the most conspicuous part of their houses, Virg. Æn. ii. 504. Liv. xxiii. 23.

When the general of the Romans slew the general of the enemy in single combat, the spoils which he took from him (quae dux duci detraxit) were called SPOLIA OPIMA (ab Ope vel opibus, Festus), Liv. iv. 20., and hung up in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius, built by Romulus, and repaired by Augustus, by the advice of Atticus, Nep. in Vit. 20. These spoils were obtained only thrice before the fall of the republic; the first by Romulus, who slew Acron, King of the Caninenses, Liv. i. 10., the next by A. Cornelius Cossus, who slew Lar Tolumnius, King of the Vejentes, A. U. 318. Liv. iv. 20., and the third by M. Claudius Marcellus, who slew Viridomărus, King of the Gauls, A. U. 530. Liv. Epit. xx. Virg. Æn. vi. 859. Plutarch. in Marcello; Propert. iv. 11.

Florus calls the spoils OPIMA, which Scipio Emilianus, when in a subordinate rank, took from the King of the Turduli and Vaccæi in Spain, whom he slew in single combat, ii, 17.; but the Spolia Opima could properly be obtained only by a person invested with supreme command, Dio. li. 24.

Sometimes soldiers, on account of their bravery, received a double share of corn (duplex frumentum), which they might give away to whom they pleased; hence called DUPLICARII, Liv. ii. 59. vii. 37., also double pay (duplex stipendium), clothes, &c. Cæs. Bell. Civ. iii. 53., called by Cicero DIARIA, Att. viii. 14.

VI. A TRIUMPH.

THE highest military honour which could be obtained in the Roman state was a triumph, or solemn procession, with which a victorious general and his army advanced through the city to the Capitol; so called from Opiάußos, the Greek name of Bacchus, who is said to have been the inventor of such processions, Varro de Lat. Ling. v. 7. Plin. vii. 56. s. 57. It had its origin at Rome, from Romulus carrying the Spolia Opima in procession to the Capitol, Dionys. ii. 34., and the first who entered the city in the form of a regular triumph was Tarquinius Priscus, Liv. i. 38., the next P. Valerius, Liv. ii. 7.; and the first who triumphed after the expiration of his magistracy (acto honore), was Q Publilius Philo, Id. viii. 26.

A triumph was decreed by the senate, and sometimes by the people against the will of the senate, Liv. iii. 63. vii. 17.,

to the general who, in a just war with foreigners (justo et hostili bello, Cic. Dejot. 5.) and in one battle had slain above 5000 enemies of the republic, and by that victory had enlarged the limits of the empire, Val. Max. ii. 8. Whence a triumph was called Justus, which was fairly won, Cic. Pis. 19. Hor. Od. i. 12. 54. And a general was said triumphare, et agere vel deportare triumphum de vel ex aliquo; triumphare aliquem vel aliquid, Virg. Æn. vi. 836. Plin. v. 5., ducere, portare, vel agere eum in triumpho.

There was no just triumph for a victory in a civil war, Val. Max. ii. S. 7. Flor. iv. 2. Dio. xlii. 18.; hence Bella geri placuit nullos habitura triumphos? Lucan. i. 12., although this was not always observed, Liv. Epit. 115, 116. 133. Plin. Paneg. 2. Dio. xliii. 19., nor when one had been first defeated, and afterwards only recovered what was lost, Oros. iv., nor anciently could one enjoy that honour, who was invested with an extraordinary command, as Scipio in Spain, Liv. xxviii. 38. xxxvi. 20., nor unless he left his province in a state of peace, and brought from thence his army to Rome along with him, to be present at the triumph, Liv. xxvi. 21. xxxi. 49. xxxix. 29. xlv. 38. But these rules were sometimes violated, particularly in the case of Pompey, Val. Max. viii. 15. 8. Dio. xxxvii. 25.

There are instances of a triumph being celebrated without either the authority of the senate, or the order of the people, Liv. x. 37. Oros. v. 4. Cic. Col. 14. Suet. Tib. 2. Val. Max. v. 4. 6., and also when no war was carried on, Liv. xl. 38. Those who were refused a triumph at Rome by public authority, sometimes celebrated it on the Alban mountain. This was first done by Papirius Naso, A. U. 522., Val. Max. iii. 6. 5., whom several afterwards imitated, Liv. xxvi. 21. xxxiii. 24. xlii. 21. xlv. 38.

.. As no person could enter the city while invested with military command, generals, on the day of their triumph, were, by a particular order of the people, freed from that restriction, (Ut iis, quo die urbem triumphantes inveherentur, imperium esset,) Liv. xlv. 35.

The triumphal procession began from the Campus Martius, and went from thence along the Via Triumphalis, through the Campus and Circus Flaminius to the Porta Triumphalis, and thence through the most public places of the city to the Capitol. The streets were strewed with flowers, and the altars smoaked with incense, Ovid. Trist. iv. 2. 4.

First went musicians of various kinds, singing and playing triumphal songs; next were led the oxen to be sacrificed, having their horns gilt, and their heads adorned with fillets and garlands; then in carriages were brought the spoils

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taken

taken from the enemy, statues, pictures, plate, armour, gold and silver, and brass; also golden crowns, and other gifts sent by the allied and tributary states, Liv. xxxiii. 24. xxxvii. 58. xxxix. 5. 7. xl. 43. xlv. 40. Virg. Æn. viii. 720. The titles of the vanquished nations were inscribed on wooden frames (in ferculis), Suet. Jul. 37. Cic. Off. i. 36., and the images or representations of the conquered countries, cities, &c. Liv. xxvi. 21. Quinctil. vi. 3. Plin. v. 5. Ovid. Pont. ii. 1.37. iii. 4.25. Art. Am. i. 220. Flor. iv., 2. The captive leaders followed in chains, with their children, and attendants; after the captives, came the lictors, having their fasces wreathed with laurel, followed by a great company of musicians and dancers dressed like satyrs, and wearing crowns of gold: in the midst of whom was a Pantomime, clothed in a female garb, whose business it was, with his looks and gestures, to insult the vanquished. Next followed a long train of persons carrying perfumes (suffimenta). Then came the general (DUX) drest in purple embroidered with gold (togá picta et tunicá palmatá), with a crown of laurel on his head, Liv. ii. 47. x. 8. Dionys. v. 47. Plin. xv. 30. v. 39., a branch of laurel in his right hand, Plut. in Emil., and in his left an ivory sceptre, with an eagle on the top, Juvenal. x. 43., having his face painted with vermilion, in like manner as the statue of Jupiter on festival days, Plin. xxxiii. 7. s. 36., and a golden ball (aurea bulla) hanging from his neck on his breast, with some amulet in it, or magical preservative against envy, Macrob. Sat. i. 6., standing in a gilded chariot (stans in curru aurato), adorned with ivory, Ovid. Pont. iii. 4. 35. Juvenal. v. 23. viii. 3. and drawn by four white horses, Ovid. Art. i. 214., at least after the time of Camillus, Liv. v. 23., sometimes by elephants, Plin. viii. 2., attended by his relations, Suet. Tib. 2. Domit. 2. Cic. Muran. 5., and a great crowd of citizens, all in white, Juvenal. x. 45. His children used to ride in the chariot along with him, Liv. xlv. 40. Appian. de Punic., and, that he might not be too much elated (ne sibi placeret), a slave, carrying a golden crown sparkling with gems stood behind him, who frequently whispered in his ear, REMEMBER THAT THOU ART A MAN! Plin. xxxiii. 1. s. 4. Juvenal. x. 41. Zonar. ii. Tertull. Apolog. 33. After the general, followed the consuls and senators on foot, at least according to the appointment of Augustus; for formerly they used to go before him, Dio. li. 21. His legati and military tribunes commonly rode by his side, Cic. Pis. 25.

The victorious army, horse and foot, came last, all in their order, crowned with laurel, and decorated with the gifts which they had received for their valour, singing their own and their

general's

general's praises, Liv. v. 49. xlv. 38.; but sometimes throwing out railleries against him, Suet. Jull. 49. 51. Dionys. vii. 72. Martial. i. 5. 3., often exclaiming, Io TRIUMPHE, in which all the citizens, as they passed along, joined, Horat. Od. iv. 2. 49. Ovid. Trist. iv. 2. 51. Amor. i. 2. 34.

The general, when he began to turn his chariot from the Forum to the Capitol, ordered the captive kings and leaders of the enemy to be led to prison, and there to be slain, Cic. Verr. v. 30. Liv. xxvi. 13. Dio. xl. 41. xliii. 19.; but not always, Appian. de Bell. Mithrid. 253. Liv. xlv. 41, 42., and when he reached the Capitol, he used to wait till he heard that these savage orders were executed, Joseph. de Bell. Jud. vii. 24.

Then, after having offered up a prayer of thanksgiving to Jupiter and the other gods, for his success, he commanded the victims to be sacrificed, which were always white, Ovid. ibid. from the river Clitumnus, Virg. G. ii. 146., and deposited his golden crown in the lap of Jupiter (in gremio Jovis), Senec. Helv. 10., to whom he dedicated part of the spoils, Plin. xv. 30. xxxv. 40. After which he gave a magnificent entertainment in the Capitol to his friends and the chief men of the city. The consuls were invited, but were afterwards desired not to come (ut venire supersederent), that there might be no one at the feast superior to the triumphant general, Val. Max. ii. 8. 6. After supper he was conducted home by the people, with music and a great number of lamps and torches, Dio. xliii. 22. Flor. ii. 2. Cic. Sen. 13., which sometimes also were used in the triumphal procession, Suet. Jul. 37.

The gold and silver were deposited in the treasury, Liv. X. 46., and a certain sum was usually given as a donative to the officers and soldiers, who then were disbanded (exauctorati et dimissi), Liv. xxviii. 9. xxx. 45. xxxvi. 40. The triumphal procession sometimes took up more than one day; that of Paulus Æmilius three, Plutarch.

When the victory was gained by sea, it was called a NAVAL TRIUMPH; which honour was first granted to Duilius, who defeated the Carthaginian fleet near Lipăra in the first Punic war, A. U. 493., Liv. Epit. 17., and a pillar erected to him in the Forum, called COLUMNA ROSTRATA, Quinctil. i. 7. Sil. vi. 663., with an inscription, part of which still remains.

When a victory had been gained without difficulty, or the like, Gell. v. 6., an inferior kind of triumph was granted, called OVATIO, in which the general entered the city on on horseback, Dio. liv. 8., crowned with myrtle, not with laurel, Plin. xv. 29. s. 38., and instead of bullocks, sacrificed a sheep (ovem), whence its name, Plut. in Marcell. Dionys.

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Dionys. v. 47. viii. 9. Liv. iii. 10. xxvi. 21. xxxi. 20. xxxiii. 28. xli. 28.

Dio. liv.

After Augustus, the honour of a triumph was in a manner confined to the emperors themselves, Dio. lxii. 19. 23., and the generals who acted with delegated authority under their auspices, only received triumphal ornaments, a kind of honour devised by Augustus, Suet. Aug. 38. Tib. 9. Tib. 9. 24. 31. Hence L. Vitellius, having taken Terracina by storm, sent a laurel branch in token of it (laureum prospere gesta rei) to his brother, Tacit. Hist. iii. 77. As the emperors were so great, that they might despise triumphs, Flor. iv. 12. 53., so that honour was thought above the lot of a private person; such therefore usually declined it, although offered to them; as, Vinicius, Dio. liii. 26. Agrippa, Id. liv. 11. 24. Plautius, Id. lx. 30. We read, however, of a triumph being granted to Belisarius, the general of Justinian, for his victories in Africa, which he celebrated at Constantinople, and is the last instance of a triumph recorded in history. Procop. The last triumph celebrated at Rome, was by Diocletian and Maximian, 20 Nov. A. D. 303. Eutrop. ix. 27., just before they resigned the empire, Ib. 28.

VII. MILITARY PUNISHMENTS.

THESE were of various kinds, either lighter or more

severe.

The lighter punishments, or such as were attended with inconvenience, loss, or disgrace, were chiefly these, 1. Deprivation of pay, either in whole or in part (stipendio privari), Liv. xl. 41., the punishment of those who were often absent from their standards (INFREQUENTES), Plaut. Truc. ii. 1. 19. A soldier punished in this manner was called ÆRE dirutus, Festus. Whence Cicero facetiously applies this name to a person deprived of his fortune at play, Verr. v. 13., or a bankrupt by any other means, Phil. xiii. 12.-2. Forfeiture of their spears, CENSIO HASTARIA, Festus.-3. Removal from their tents (locum in quo tenderent mutare), Liv. xxv. 6., sometimes to remain without the camp and without tents, Liv. x. 4., or at a distance from the winterquarters, Liv. xxvi. 1. Val. Max. ii. 7. 15.-4. Not to recline or sit at meals with the rest (cibum stantes capere), Liv. xxiv. 16.-5. To stand before the praetorium in a loose jacket, Suet. Aug. 24. Val. Max. ii. 7. 9., and the centurions without their girdle (discincti), Liv. xxvii. 13., or to dig in that dress, Plut. in Lucull.-6. To get an allowance of barley instead of wheat (hordeo pasci), Liv. ibid.

Suet.