he was born, had to change its name into Julius, which name it still retains in all European countries. Cæsar himself acknowledged that the republic had ceased to exist, although its outward forms continued to be observed.

In B.C. 45 Cæsar for a time was sole consul, until, in the month of October, he resigned the office, and entrusted it for the remainder of the year to two other men. Many persons were in that year raised to the rank of patricians, whereby what till then had been a distinction of birth, became a title conferred by the head of the state. The number of

senators was gradually increased to 900, among whom there were some of his former enemies. By these and similar means Cæsar rewarded those who had served him, and endeavoured to show to his former opponents that he really meant to forget the past, and to be a true father of his country. His schemes for benefiting not only Rome and Italy, but the distant provinces, were of the most extensive nature. For his veterans and the poor he made provision by assigning to them lands, or settling them in new colonies; Carthage and Corinth were rebuilt and repeopled; the isthmus of Corinth was to be cut through by a canal, and the Pomptine marshes were to be drained. These and other schemes were engaging his ever-active mind-schemes which were to benefit the world, and restore and perpetuate the glory of the Roman name; while for the benefit of the Romans he established a large library of Latin and Greek works, under the superintendence of the learned M. Terentius Varro, and drew to Rome physicians and teachers from Greece by offering them the Roman franchise.

While still engaged in such splendid pursuits, Cæsar formed the plan of an expedition against the Parthians, ostensibly to avenge the defeat of Crassus, but in reality to give occupation to the restless soldiery, and still further to unite all parties by an undertaking against a common enemy. All preparations were ready, and arrangements had been made for the administration of Rome, Italy, and the provinces during his absence, when, four days before his intended departure, he was murdered.

Many of his former friends as well as his enemies were dissatisfied, although the dictator did far more than could

have been expected to satisfy the former and to conciliate the latter, on many of whom he had even conferred high offices and honours. Some of the latter could not bear the idea of being under obligations to the man whom they hated, but they concealed this feeling, and pretended that they were actuated by the love of liberty, and by the desire to free the republic from its oppressor. Only a very few, such as M. Brutus, to whom Cæsar had always shown the greatest affection and kindness, were carried away by genuine enthusiasm for political freedom; but neither he nor any of the others who entered into a conspiracy against the life of Cæsar had formed a clear idea of what would be the consequences of their act, or of what could and should be done after the murder. Cæsar's own conduct, his evident desire to have the title of king, notwithstanding his refusal to accept the diadem offered by M. Antony, seemed to justify the conspirators. Cæsar might have gained his object by a coup d'état and with the help of his legions, but he would not appear as a usurper; his ambition was to receive the diadem as an hereditary gift from the hands of the people. The Sibylline books, therefore, were consulted, and made to declare that the Parthians could be conquered only by a king. The issue of the war was thus represented as depending upon compliance with the divine warning. Accordingly, a meeting of the senate was summoned, at which it was to be proposed to allow the dictator to assume the title of king so long as he was beyond the borders of Italy. Cæsar was satisfied with this proposal, for he hoped that by a victorious career in the East he might reconcile all classes to the title. Cassius, the principal instigator of the conspiracy, had been joined by Brutus and about sixty others.

On the 15th of March, B.C. 44, the senate met in the curia of Pompey to decide upon the regal title to be conferred upon Cæsar out of Italy, and that day was fixed upon by the conspirators to execute their bloody scheme. Cæsar had such confidence in the fidelity and attachment of his friends, and in the gratitude of the opponents whom he had raised to high honours, that he neglected all precaution for his personal safety, though was not without warnings of the approaching danger. He

ed that he would rather die than live and be feared,

When he appeared in the senate and took his seat on the golden chair, the conspirators crowded around him, as if wishing to pay their respects to him, and two of their number, Tillius Cimber and P. Casca, attacked him with their daggers. Cæsar at first rose and tried to defend himself, but when his eyes fell upon Brutus, he exclaimed, Et tu Brute? and wrapping himself in his toga, sank, pierced by a number of stabs, at the foot of the statue of Pompey. The senate dispersed in dismay, not knowing what was to come next, and fled to the Capitol. The body of Cæsar was carried by slaves to his own house, and soon after M. Antony arranged a solemn funeral, at which it was burnt.

Thus perished the man who above all others had both the will and the power to do the best for his country, and transform the state by gentle steps from a republic which had become impossible, to monarchy. If he had been allowed peacefully to establish his power, Rome might have entered upon a new period of peace and prosperity, and would have been saved the fearful scenes of civil war and bloodshed which soon after desolated the city and Italy, and landed the empire in a despotism from which it never recovered.

It now only remains to add a few words about the position which Cæsar occupies in the literature of his country. It has already been remarked that the commentaries on the Gallic war (Commentarii de Bello Gallico) were written by him while he was carrying on the war in Gaul. They were afterwards revised and published in B.C. 51. They consist of eight books, but only the first seven were written by Cæsar himself; the eighth, containing the eighth or last year of the Gallic war, was added by Cæsar's friend, A. Hirtius, a man of considerable attainments, who successfully imitated the language and style of Cæsar. These Commentaries are a kind of memoirs, being neither a carefully composed history, nor the mere jottings of a journal or diary. Their form is simple and artless, but still every expression is carefully weighed, and Cæsar, though he makes no absolutely untrue statement, yet always contrives to exhibit the facts in such a manner as to place himself in a favourable light, and where this is not feasible, things are passed over in silence. Hence

his mode of action always appears justifiable and his motives good.

The only other complete work of Cæsar that has come down to us are the Commentarii de Bello Civili, in three books, containing an account of the civil war between him and Pompey, from its outbreak down to the commencement of the Alexandrian war. It is written in the same simple style, and is precisely of the same character as the Commentaries on the Gallic war.

Along with these genuine works of Cæsar there are generally printed:

1. De Bello Alexandrino, which was no doubt written by A. Hirtius.

2. De Bello Africano, and

3. De Bello Hispaniensi.

The last two have sometimes been ascribed to C. Oppius, another friend of Cæsar's, and likewise a man of good literary abilities. But neither of them can have proceeded from his pen: the history of the Spanish war is evidently the production of an illiterate person, and that of the African war is written in a bombastic style, and devoid of taste. It is not improbable that these two accounts may have been drawn up, at Hirtius' request, by some subordinate officers who had served in the wars, as materials to be used afterwards by Hirtius or some other competent person.

Of Cæsar's speeches and letters only fragments remain. He wrote a grammatical work, De Analogia, in two books, which he dedicated to Cicero, and which he is said to have composed while crossing the Alps from Cisalpine to Transalpine Gaul. His Anticato has already been mentioned. An astronomical treatise, De Astris, was believed to have been written by him, but it was probably the work of some one who assisted him in the reform of the calendar, and who afterwards published it under the name of Cæsar.

LIBER PRIMUS.

SUMMARY.

1. General description of Gaul, its divisions and inhabitants. 2. The Helvetii persuaded by Orgetorix to emigrate. 3. Preparations. 4. Accusation of Orgetorix, and his sudden death. 5. The Helvetii burn their towns and villages. 6. Routes from their country. 7. Cæsar prepares to oppose the Helvetii. 8. His defensive measures. 9. The Helvetii treat with the Sequani. 10. Cæsar increases his forces. 11. The Helvetii reach the country of the Edui. 12. Cæsar follows, overtakes the Tigurini, and cuts them to pieces on the Arar. 13. The Helvetii treat with Cæsar. 14. Cæsar's reply. 15. The Helvetii move onward, and Cæsar follows them. 16. The Edui fail to furnish supplies to Cæsar. 17. The communications of Liscus. 18. Treachery of Dumnorix. 19. Cæsar deals with Divitiacus. 20. Pardons Dumnorix. 21. Operations against the Helvetii. 22. Blunder of Considius, and failure of the Romans. 23. Cæsar retires to Bibracte for supplies. 24. The Helvetii follow him, and prepare for battle. 25. The battle. 26. The Helvetii totally defeated. 27. They surrender. 28. And are compelled to return to their country, with the exception of the Boii, who are permitted to settle in the country of the Edui. 29. The number of the Helvetii who had left their homes, and the number who returned. 30. The States of Gaul hold a Council. 31. They complain of Ariovistus, king of the Germans. 32. The Sequani are oppressed by him. 33. Cæsar's answer to the Gauls. 34. A conference sought by Cæsar is refused by Ariovistus. 35. Cæsar's demands by ambassadors. 36. Ariovistus' reply. 37. Cæsar marches against Ariovistus. 38. And takes possession of Vesontio. 39. Alarm in Cæsar's army. 40. Cæsar addresses his soldiers. Confidence is restored, and Cæsar advances. 42. Ariovistus now proposes a conference. 43. The place of conference, and Cæsar's arguments. 44. Ariovistus' boasting reply. 45. Cæsar's further arguments. 46. Ariovistus' treachery, and its effect on the Roman soldiers. 47. Ariovistus attempts negotiation. Cæsar sends two Gauls as ambassadors, who are cast into irons. 48. Cæsar offers battle. 49. Makes a second camp. 50. Ariovistus attacks the smaller one. Reason why Ariovistus declined a general battle. 52. The battle. 53. Ariovistus is defeated, and escapes across the Rhine in a skiff: his forces are cut to pieces. 54. Cæsar returns to Hither Gaul.

51. Cæsar offers battle.

41.

The events related in the first book took place in the consulship of L. Calpurnius Piso and A. Gabinius, that is, in B.C. 58.

1. Gallia est omnis divisa in partes tres, quarum unam incolunt Belgæ, aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsorum lingua Celta, nostra Galli appellantur. Hi omnes lingua, institutis, legibus inter se diffèrunt. Gallos ab Aquitanis Garumna flumen, a Belgis Matrona et Sequăna dividit. Horum omnium fortissimi sunt Belgæ, propterea quod a cultu atque humanitate Provinciæ longissime absunt, minimeque ad eos mercatores sæpe commeant atque ea, quæ ad effeminandos animos