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luntary; for such submission, without defending one's self, proceeds from an unmanly character, and from cowardice. These then, and the like to these, are the things about which men are sensible of shame. But as the sense of shame is an idea entertained of loss of character; and of this loss, in itself alone, without reference to its consequences; and as no one re men feel gards the opinion, except for the sake of those who

14. Persons in whose

presence

shame.

Whom

they esteem.

16. Admire.

15.

17. Their equals.

hold it; it must follow that a man is thus sensible in regard to those for whom he has an esteem. But he will have an esteem for those who admire him, and whom he does himself admire, and by whom he wishes to be admired, and in regard to whom he feels emulation, and whose opinion he does not hold cheap. Now, people wish to be admired by, and do themselves admire, all those who possess any of those goods which are valued; or from whom they happen to be very much in want of getting something of which they have the disposal; for instance, those who are in love. But people have their emulation excited, in reference to their equals; and they hold in consideration the prudent3, as being men who adhere to truth; of this description are men of education, and 18. Those such as are advanced in years. Also actions done in the eyes of the world and in public [excite our shame], and hence the proverb, that "Shame dwells in the must live eyes." On this account, people are more sensible of shame before those with whom they are always likely to be present, and those who fix their attention on them, for both these are instances of being before the 19. The eyes of persons :—again, they are sensible of it beinnocent fore those who are not open to charges on the same points; for their sentiments, it is evident, are the opposite of their own: before those also who do not make allowances for such as appear to be faulty; for errors which a man commits himself, these he is said

with

whom they

3 Oi póviμoi, more properly, men of the world. Such a character Cicero seems to have had in view, according to Victorius, when he says, "qui est versatus in rebus, vel usu, quem ætas denique affert, vel auditione et cogitatione, quæ studio et diligentia præcurrit ætatem." Cic. de Orat. ii. 30.

not to take amiss in his neighbours; so that he evidently will take amiss such as he does not commit himself: and before those who are fond of divulging 20. Tattlers. what they know to the world; for whether a man does not think one's conduct faulty, or does not divulge it, makes no difference. But persons likely to divulge [what they know to one's discredit] are such as have been injured, from their being anxiously on the watch to retaliate; and those who are slanderers generally; for if they speak ill even of those who are not culpable, much more will they of those who are: as are also those who are on the look-out for the errors of their neighbours, for instance, jesters, and the poets of the old comedy; for these are in some sense slanderers, and fond of divulging. Again, [men are sensible of shame] before those with whom they never met with a repulse; for they are disposed towards them as admirers. On which account men have a sense of shame, even towards those who ask any thing for the first time, as having never yet forfeited their good opinion in any points. And of this description are both those who have lately sought to be our friends. for they have observed our excellent qualities; and hence, the reply of Euripides to the Syracusans is a good one1; and, of our old acquaintances, those who know no ill of us. And men are 21. sensible of shame not only about the things themselves which have been mentioned as delicate points, but even about the indications of them; for instance, not only about licentious conduct, but also about all indications of it; not only in doing what is disgraceful, but even in mentioning it5. And in the same 22. way they are sensible of shame, not only before those who have been mentioned, but before those also who

It appears that Euripides had been sent to Sicily as ambassador, but finding the Syracusans inclined to reject his proposals for a peace, he told them, "that they surely ought to have some respect for a people who held them in such high consideration, particularly as this was their first request." ' Quod factu fœdum est, idem est et dictu turpe.

Οὐ γὰρ αὐδᾶν ἔσθ ̓ ἃ μηδὲ δρᾷν καλόν.

Sophoc. Ed. Tyr. 1409.

will be likely to disclose their conduct to them, as f Servants. instance, their servants or their friends. In brie 23. however, people are not at all sensible of shame be fore those whose opinions, in regard to their justnes they hold cheap; for no one feels shame before chi dren and brutes: nor do men feel it about the sam points when before acquaintances, as before strangers but when before acquaintances they feel it on point really shameful; but before strangers on matter merely sanctioned by custom.

24. How affected men feel shame.

When the

world is looking

on.

As regards themselves, men would be likely to b sensible of shame under these dispositions; first, i there should really exist any so affected towards them selves, as I described those to be, in regard to whon they feel shame. And these were either those whom they hold in admiration, or by whom themselves ar held in admiration, or by whom they are desirous of being admired, or of whom they are petitioning something which they will not be likely to get, if not men of character. And if these be either actual spectators (just as, on the question of the allotment of Samos to colonists, Cydias introduced in his harangue to the ecclesia; for he put it to the Athenians to imagine that the Greeks were standing round as actual spectators, and not as mere future hearers, of the decree which they might pass); or should persons of this description be near, or be likely soon to be aware of their conduct and on this account persons in misfortune, do not wish even to be seen by those who once deemed them happy; for they who thus deem of us 25. When are admirers. And when they have attached to them what throws discredit on the conduct and the actions, either of themselves, or of their ancestors, or any others with whom in any way they are closely connected; and, in one word, all in whose behalf they are sensible of shame; and these are the above-mentioned, and those who stand in any relation to them,

discredit

may attach.

He told us above (chap. iv. § 23), that those people were usually regarded as friends "before whom we feel no delicacy on matters of mere opinion, though far from disregarding thei opinions."

whose tutors or advisers they have been. And if 26. With there be others, their equals, with whom they are at their rivalry; for, from a feeling of shame, on account of equals. persons of this description, men both do and leave undone very many things. Again, when people are 27. When likely to be seen, and openly to be engaged before openly disgraced. those who are privy [to their disgrace], they become in a higher degree susceptible of shame. And hence the poet Antiphon, just as he was going to be beaten on the rack by Dionysius, observing those who were about to be executed with him muffling themselves up as they went through the gate, said, "Why do you muffle yourselves up ;—is it lest any of these present should see you to-morrow?"

Thus much then on the subject of the sense of shame; but of insensibility to it, we shall evidently know enough from the contraries.

CHAP. VII.

Those towards whom people feel Gratitude; on what occasions; and, as regards themselves, with what dispositions.

THE persons towards whom men feel gratitude, and 1. the occasions on which, and with what dispositions on their own part, will be plain to us, after we have defined gratuitous benevolence. Now, let gratuitous 2. Defini

tion of

: The Stoics had observed this feeling of carrying our views Xápis. onward to posthumous glory; and found the love of glory the most difficult of all passions to eradicate:—διὸ καὶ ἔσχατος λέγεται τῶν παθῶν χιτὼν ἡ φιλοδοξία, διότι τῶν ἄλλων πολλάκις δι' αὐτὴν ἀποδυομένων αὐτὴ προσίσχεται τῇ ψυχῇ. Simplicius in Comm. ad Epicteti, cap. 48. Tacitus, in speaking of the great love of fame manifested by Helvidius Priscus, justifies him, by observing that Etiam sapientibus cupido gloriæ novissima exuitur. Hist. iv. 6. A mode of expression which strongly brings to our recollection the passage in Milton's Lycidas,

Fame is the spur that the clear spirit doth raise,
That last infirmity of noble mind.

Lycid. 70

5. How

benevolence1 be "that conformably to which, he who has the power is said to confer a benefit on one who needs it, not in return for any thing, nor in order that any thing may accrue to him who so confers it, but that some benefit may arise to the object." But it becomes great should it be conferred on one who is in extreme want2, or if the boon be great and difficult of attainment, or at a crisis of a certain description, or if the giver has bestowed it alone, or first, or in a 8. greater degree than any other. Wants are however

our desires of these; such particularly as are attended by pain on failing of their objects; and of this description are our lusts, as for instance, love. Again, such as arise in the suffering of the body, and in danger; for both the man who is exposed to danger, and who suffers pain, is anxious for something. On which account, those who stand by us in poverty and banishment, should they confer even trifling benefits, will yet have gratified us by reason of the greatness of our need, and the circumstances of the time; take the instance of him who gave but a mat [to a beggar] 4. in the Lycæum. It is necessary, then, that our obligation have reference, if possible, by all means to some case of this sort, but if not, to some one of equal or greater need. So that, as it is evident both when, and in what cases, an act of free benevolence takes place, and how the parties are affected, it is plain that out of these principles we must get up our speech, showing that, as regards the one party, they were or are exposed to pain, or want of this description, and as regards the other, that in such their want they assisted them by administering some boon of this description.

the orator must in

And it is also evident, by recurring to what topics we may do the obligation, and make our audi

away

1 This chapter presents considerable difficulty from the double meaning of which the word xápis is capable. See Schrader's Note, Animadv.

2 Hence the value of the aid sent by the Athenians to the Lacedæmonians, when the Helots had possessed themselves of Ithome

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