СНАР. Х.

Of Envy.

envy are

It is plain also on what occasions, with whom, and 1. Envy. with what dispositions men feel envy, if in truth envy be "a sort of pain at apparent good fortune, Its defini touching the above-mentioned goods', in the case of tion. equals, not in order that any thing may happen to one's self, and simply on account of their [being thus fortunate]:" for those who have, or seem to have equals, will be the people to be envious. I mean by 2. equals, those who are like in circumstances of birth, connexions, age, habits, character, and property. They, too, will be envious who fall but little short of Men likepossessing all2: hence those who are carrying on ly to feel mighty projects, and those who are prosperous, are those envious; for they think that every one is carrying off within a what belongs to them. Again, those who are remarkably esteemed on any account, and particularly mit. on account of their wisdom or happiness. And 3. those who are ambitious are more given to envy than The amthose who are devoid of ambition. And those who bitious. make a show of wisdom, for they are ambitious on the The wise. score of wisdom. And, in a word, those who in any respect are ambitious of glory are given to envy in that respect. And the narrow-minded; for, to them, The narevery thing appears of consequence.

little of

the sum

row

minded.

The goods respecting which men feel envy have 4. Objects been told you; for all those things whatsoever, about which exwhich men are eager for praise, and ambitious, whe- cite envy.

1 See § 7 and 8 of the last chapter, where he excludes moral excellence from the number of the goods which excite indignation; and in justification of their exclusion in that place it may be observed, that the simple fact of their being possessed is proof of their being deserved. And their exclusion from the subjects of envy may be justified by the consideration that the envious will, in general, esteem moral excellence scarcely worth troubling themselves about.

See the parable of the ewe lamb, addressed by Nathan to David.

5. Men

be envied.

Rivals.

ther they be productions or acquisitions, and respecting which they are desirous of renown, and all cases of good luck; about all these nearly is envy felt; and particularly about such of them as the individuals are themselves desirous of, or think they ought themselves to possess, or those things in the possession of which they are themselves superior, or deficient in a trifling degree.

Again, it is evident with whom men are envious; likely to for this has been already stated in connexion [with what has gone before]; since men envy those who Equals. come near them in time, and place, and age, and character; whence the saying, “kindred too is conscious of envy 3." Men also envy those with whom they are at rivalry; for they are rivals of those abovementioned; but of those who existed ten thousand years back, or who may live ten thousand years hence, or who are already dead, of these no one is the rival; nor again of those who live at the Pillars of Hercules; nor of those of whom, in the opinions either of themselves or of others, they are greatly the inferiors; nor again of those to whom they conceive themselves to be in a great degree superior; with the like indifference do they regard those [at all en6. gaged] in pursuits of this description. And as men are affected by ambition in regard to rivals, and competitors, and all, in a word, who are eager after the same objects, it must follow that they envy these in an especial manner; whence the saying, "potter envies potter." And those who either succeed with difficulty, or do not succeed at all, envy those who succeed quickly. Again, they envy those whose acquisitions and success are a reproach to themselves, and these are those who are near them, or their equals; for it becomes evident that they do themselves fail of success through their own fault, so that

7. The

success

ful.

8. Those whose

success is

a tacit re

proach to

18.

3 This apophthegm should seem to justify the caution of Cleobulus, Κλεόβουλος ὁ Λίνδιος ἐρωτηθεὶς ὑπό τινος τίνα δεῖ μάλιστα φυλάττεσθαι; εἶπεν, τῶν μὲν φίλων τὸν φθόνον, τῶν δὲ ἐχθρῶν τὴν ἐπιβουλήν. Stobæus.

4 Πρὸς τοὺς ες ποδῶν, φθόνος οὐδεὶς φύεται. Philo. Hooker, v. § 2, p. 26.

this, galling them, produces envy. And those who 9. either possess or have acquired that which it would become themselves to possess, or which themselves had at one time acquired; at least the old, on this account, envy the young. And those who have been 10. at considerable expense on an object, envy those who have expended little on the same object. But it is 11. evident both with whom, and on what occasions, and with what dispositions people of this sort feel pleasure; for they will be delighted, having in the contrary circumstances that very temper, the which being without, they are pained. So that if the The orajudges themselves shall have been wrought up into tor by exthis disposition, while those who lay claim to our envy will pity or to the acquisition of some good, are such as remove have been described, it is evident that they will not pity. obtain pity at the hands of those on whom they depend for it.

citing

CHAP. XI.

Of Emulation.

lation.

HENCE likewise it will be evident both with what 1. Emudispositions, and in regard to what objects, and of whom, persons are emulous. Because if emulation Its definibe "a sort of pain at the apparent1 presence of goods tion. which are held in honour, and which admit of one's gaining them himself, in the case of those naturally our equals; felt, not because they are present to another, but because they are not likewise present to one's self," (on which very account emulation is a vir- It is a vir tuous feeling, and belongs to virtuous people, whereas envy is a depraved feeling, and belongs to persons who are depraved: for the one, by motion of his emu

The merely apparent presence of this description of goods is sufficient to excite emulation. The character of the goods which this passion has as its object is entirely different from that which excites envy and indignation.

tuous

emotion

Persons likely to feel emulation.

The

young and highspirited.

lation, sets himself to acquire the good; while the other, by motion of his envy, sets himself to cause the dispossession of his neighbour). It must be, then, that persons who deem themselves worthy of goods which they do not possess, are apt to feel emulation ; since no one arrogates to himself that which appears impossible: and hence the young and the high-spirited are thus affected; and also those to whom belong goods of such a description as to be worth the attention of men in repute; these are wealth, number of friends, office, and whatever other goods are of this kind; for men feel emulous of such goods; as though, because they properly belong to such as are men of virtuous dispositions, it were matter of absolute right 2. Those that themselves should be virtuous. Again, those are emulous whom others esteem worthy of such goods: and those again whose ancestors, or relations, or in3. Whose timate friends, or whose tribe or city is held in esancestry teem about any point, such persons are apt to feel emulation on that point; for they think they belong properly to them, and that themselves are worthy of them.

whom

others

esteem.

or rela

tions are worthy.

4. Things which are objects of emulation. Virtues. Goods.

But if those goods are matter of emulation which are held in esteem, it must of course follow that the virtues are of this description; and whatever things have a tendency to aid and benefit others; since people honour virtuous people, and those who benefit them likewise that all goods whatsoever, the enjoyment of which accrues to one's neighbours, are of this Wealth, sort; for instance, wealth, and beauty, rather than health.

etc.

And it will also be evident who the persons are who are objects of emulation; since they who possess these, and the like goods, become objects of emulation; these goods are such as have been mentioned, for example, courage, wisdom, sovereignty; for those who are sovereigns have a power of benefiting many. Generals, orators, all, in fact, who have abilities this way [are objects of emulation]. And those whom many wish to resemble, or who have many acquaintances, or many friends. Or those whom many admire,

trary to

or whom they do themselves admire. And those on 7. or adwhom are pronounced the praises and encomia of mire. poets and panegyrists 2. Persons, however, of a con- Contempt trary description, men despise; for contempt is the is the concontrary of emulation; and the despising of the being emula emulous. And it must be that persons so affected as tion. to emulate certain persons, or to be themselves objects of emulation, are apt to feel contempt for those things and persons who possess evils the contraries of those goods which are the objects of emulation. On which account men frequently despise the fortunate, when their good fortune is unconnected with those goods which are held in esteem.

Of the means, then, by which the passions are excited in the breast, and are allayed, one of the sources 3 out of which means of persuasion arise, of these we now have treated.

CHAP. XII.

Of the Passions and Habits of the Young'.

LET us next go over in detail the dispositions2 of 1. Charac men; considering of what kind of a turn they are, in ters of reference to their passions, habits, ages, and fortunes.

* This description of orators were justly said to be λoyoypá φοι, (λόγους γραφείν ;) indeed it appears from the third book, that epideictic orations in general were intended rather for perusal than recitation. Speaking of the style of epideictic orators, he remarks, Tò pyov avτñs ȧváyvots, lib. iii. cap. xii. § 6.

3 Viz. πίστις παθητική, the third branch of πίστις ἐντέχνη, See book i. chap. ii. § 3, 4, 5.

This discussion of the dispositions of persons, under a few of the most striking circumstances of life, was promised in the first book (chap. x. § 11).

2 "The word "on, taken in its utmost extent, includes every thing that is habitual and characteristic; but it is often used in a limited sense, for the habitual temper or disposition." Twining. Probably" humour," in the sense in which it has been defined by Ben Jonson, comes nearer to noos than any word in our language ·

mankind.