1. That there are certain κοινὰ

εἴδη.

2.

CHAP. XVIII.

That there are some Topics common to all the species of
Oratory.

BUT since the use of persuasive orations has a refer-
ence to the forming a decision (since on questions
which we are acquainted with, and have decided on,
there is no further need of an oration); and as this is
their use, whether addressing his speech to a single
iudividual, the speaker endeavours to exhort or dis-
suade (which they do who admonish or persuade;
since that individual is in no less degree a judge;
because the person [be he who he may], whomsoever
we want to persuade is, once for all, a judge); and
also if one be speaking against an adversary, or on
any supposed question, it has equally [a reference to
decision]; (for one needs must employ a speech, and
sweep away objections against which, as against an
adversary, he directs his address); this is just as much
the case in demonstrative oratory (since the speech
commends itself to the listener just as though to a
judge). But he alone is strictly a judge, who decides
on the questions at issue in civil1 controversies: since
both forensic questions, and those on which men de-
liberate, are agitated as to how they stand. But of
dispositions, as they are affected by the constitutions
of states, we have spoken above. So that the means
will now have been distinctly unfolded, both how,
and by the use of what things, we may render our
addresses ethical.

But as there was, in each species of orations, a cer tain distinct end proposed; and as respecting all of them some ideas and propositions have been ascertained, out of which the deliberative, demonstrative, and judicial orators deduce their means of persuading; and as, in addition to these, the means by which it is possible for us to render our speeches ethical, have been developed; it merely remains, that we go over

Under the word ToλITIKòs, he seems, according to Victorius, to embrace judicial as well as deliberative questions.

in detail the topics which are common to the three species of oratory 2: for it is necessary that every 3. They are four in orator should connect with his speech the topics of number. possibility or impossibility; and for some it will be i. The posnecessary to attempt to show that certain things will sible or impossitake place, and for others that they have taken place. ble. And again, the topic of greatness is common to all 4. ii. Wheoratory; for every orator, whether he exhort or dis- ther the suade, praise or blame, accuse or defend, avails himself of amplification and diminution. Let us also, after these points have been explained, attempt to treat of enthymems in general (if we are theritwill in possession of any thing on the subject) and of examples; in order that by subjoining what remains we may make good our original proposal.

But of these common topics, amplification is most congenial to demonstrative oratory, as has been remarked; possibility, as relating to the past, to judicial3; since on what has been its decision is made; but possibility, as relating to the future, is most congenial to deliberative.

fact has

or has not

taken place.

Whe

or willnot. great and

5. iv. The

small.

CHAP. XIX.

Of Things Possible and Impossible.

FIRST, then, let us speak of things possible and those which are impossible.

1. First of the possible and impossi

ble.

The possi

ble is of

If then it be possible that one contrary should exist, or be called into existence, the other contrary will also appear to be possible; for instance, if it be possible for a man to be convalescent, it also is which the possible for him to be sick; for the effective power contrary of contraries, inasmuch as they are contraries, is the ispossible.

"We may, if we please, consider this as the dródoσis of the sentence; and all the previous clauses as so many distinct parentheses; as the author of the Analysis has done, p. 101.

3 This discussion of possibility was promised in the course of what he said on judicial oratory, book i. chap. xii. § 2.

M

2. The like. 3. The

more dif-
ficult.
4. The

more ex<cellent.

6. The subsequent.

If

same. If, of two similar things, the one be possible, the other which is similar will be possible also. the more difficult be possible, so will also that which is easier. And if it be possible for a thing to be produced in a state of excellence or beauty, it also is possible for it to be produced under general circumstances; for it is more difficult for a building to be 5. The be made beautiful, than simply a building. And in ginning. whatever case the commencement is possible, the fulfilment also is possible1: for of things which are impossible, none either take place or begin to do so; for instance, it neither is the case, that the diameter of a square is commensurable with the side, neither The end. will it ever begin to be so. Also, wherever the fulfilment is possible, so is the commencement; since every thing proceeds from a beginning. And if the subsequent in being or production be possible, so also is the antecedent: if, for example, it be possible that a man should be produced, so also is it that a child should, since it is antecedent in its production: again, if it be possible for a child, so is it also for a man to be produced; on the principle that the former is a 7. Things commencement. Things likewise are possible, of which we which there is a natural love or desire; for no one loves what is impossible, neither desires it, for the most part at least. Also, any thing which is the subject of an art or science, is possible both to exist and to be produced. Likewise any thing whatsoever, the principle of whose production resides in those whom we can compel or persuade; such are those whose superiors, or lords, or friends we are. 10. Where And wherever the parts are possible, so also is the the parts whole. Wherever again the whole is possible, so also are possible, so is are the parts. generally speaking: for if the latchet, the whole, the forepart, and the upperleather of the shoe admit of being brought into being, so also do the shoes. themselves and if the shoes, then also the latchet,

love.

8. Sub

jects of art

or science.

9.

1 Thus it is argued, that if all may receive the doxy of regeneration, baptism; all may receive its Télos, salvation. Baptism is expressly called by St. Basil, ἀρχὴ μοὶ ζωῆς τὸ Bárrioμa. De Spir. Sanct. c. 10.

then the

the forepart, and upperleather2; also, if the genus be 11. If the of the number of things possible, so also will be the genus, species; and if the species, so also the genus: for species; example, if a vessel can be produced, so can a and vice trireme; and if a trireme, so can a vessel. And if, 12.

versà, etc.

without

art, then

of things which have a natural relation to each other, the one be possible, so is also the other; as if the double be possible, so also is the half; and if the half, so also is the double. And if a thing admits of 13. If being brought into being without art or preparation, à fortiori it will admit of it by the help of art and with art. attention. On which principle too it has been remarked by Agatho, "Yes, truly, in some things you must fare just as fortune goes; other things there are which attach to us by necessity and art." Also, if 14. If inany thing be possible to persons who are worse, or do it, then our inferiors, or less prudent, much more will it also can supebe possible to their opposites; just as Isocrates said, riors. that "it would be strange if Euthynus learnt it, and he were not able to find it out."

feriors can

With regard, however, to things impossible, it is 15.Things impossiplain that they result from the contraries of the ble are the above-mentioned principles.

opposite.

Questions as to the actual occurrence of any thing, 16. Seare to be viewed under the following considerations. condly, a thing has For, in the first place, if that which had a less natural taken tendency to occur, has occurred; then may that have place. occurred which had a greater tendency. And if that 17. When which is wont to take place subsequently, has taken its subsequent has place, that also has taken place which usually does happenprimarily if, for instance, a man has forgotten, then ed. also must he at some time have learnt that [of which he is now forgetful]. Also, if a man was able and 18. If the willing, he achieved the deed; for all men when, being agent was willing, they have power, proceed to act; for there is nothing in their way. If, moreover, a man was willing and had no external impediment. If, again, the act 19. And

2 The admirers of Sterne will do well, on reading this passage, to borrow a hint from him, and consult the learned Albertus Rubenius upon it, or at least some one of the many great authorities mentioned chap. 19, vol. vi. of Tristram Shandy.

willing.

of anger

or desire.

under the was possible, and he was under the influence of aninfluence ger3. And if it was possible, and he [the person in question] was influenced by lust; for, generally speaking, men, if they have the power, execute that of which they are desirous; the bad from weakness of principle; and the virtuous because they desire ob20. If he jects compatible with virtue. Also, if a man was on was on the the point of bringing the thing into action and of ing it, etc. doing it; since the probability is, that he who was on 21. the eve of acting, did moreover really act. Also, if

eve of do

22.Things which have not

all those things have taken place which naturally occur, either as preparatory to, or on account of the occurrence in question; as for instance, if it has lightened, it has also thundered; and if he attempted it, he has also achieved it. And if all those things which naturally occur subsequently, and that on account of which the deed is done, have taken place, then has also the prior to them and that which is the cause taken place: if, for instance, it has thundered, it has also lightened; and if he acted, he also attempted. Of all this number there are some thus subsequent of necessity; others however merely generally.

With regard, however, to the non-occurrence of things, the considerations applicable will be plain from happened the contraries of those above stated.

are to be inferred from the

what will

are sub

Also with regard to what will happen, matters will become evident from the same considerations; for opposite. that which is within the power and the wishes of any Thirdly, one will take place. Also things which are subjects 23. of lust, anger, and reasonings, accompanied by power". happen On this account, too, if persons be on the onset or on the eve of doing any thing, it will be done: for, generally speaking, things which are on the point of taking place occur, rather than those which are not. 24. If the Also, if all those things have preceded which naturally occur before; for instance, if it lowers, there is have hap- a probability that it will rain. Also, if that has happened which is on account of the thing in question,

jects ofthe passions.

antecedents

pened.

25.

3 Compare chap. v. § 3, 4.

Fulmen est ubi cum potestate habitat iracundia. Publius Syrus.