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poses in the theatre of being. Only the spine of the ichthyosaurus as yet existed in other animals. Its head, its paddles, and its breast-arch, were all detached parts of future animals. How strange to reflect, that some of these contrivances were allowed to become extinct, and, as it were, lost to nature, and ultimately, after a long interval, were revived in connection with new creatures!

The iguanodon, of the crocodile family, is found in abundance in these rocks. The greatest wonder of this age, was the pterodactyle, a reptile of the lizard kind; it had the wings of a bat, the neck of a bird, and a head furnished with long jaws, full of teeth, so that in this part of its organisation it bore some resemblance to the crocodile. Eight species, varying from the size of a snipe to that of a cormorant, have been found.

Tortoises also existed during this age, as is proved by the marks of their feet on sheets of sandstone, and by their remains. But as yet no animals of a higher class had appeared

These apparently strange circumstances are stumbling blocks in the way of supernaturalism, but do not trip up the follower of reason. No one thing in existence is to him more strange and wonderful than another; he is equally incapable of understand-upon earth-for the remains of certain creaing the grain of sand as he is the world, and the world as the universe. Looking upon all as necessitated, he knows that there must have been adequate causes for every effect, and where he cannot arrive at a knowledge of a cause, is content to remain in ignorance, or wait until some circumstance assists him to unravel the mystery. The religious world may be truly said to know all, for by assign. ing one cause for every effect reason won't explain they get over every difficulty with the greatest self-satisfaction.

The name plesiosaurus is applied to another remarkable animal which inhabited the world before the days of mammalia. To the head of a lizard was attached a long neck like the body of a serpent; it was not calculated for such rapid motion as the ichthyosaurus, The plesiosaurus probably lived chiefly on or near the surface of the water, breathing the air, and dabbling for prey like a duck or swan, but might also be able to descend to the bottom, and even to move, though awkwardly, upon land. One part of its organisation is peculiarly striking, as foreshadowing a structure of a more important kind. The paddles, which may be considered an advance or improvement upon the fins of fishes, are at the same time the type of the legs of quadrupeds and of the arms and limbs of man. The fore-paddle consists of scapula (shoulder blade), humerus (shoulder), ulna (upper bone), and radius (lower bone), succeeded by the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, and the phalanges, equivalent to those which compose the palm and fingers of a human being. The hind-paddle presents femur, tibia, and fibula, succeeded by the bones of the tarsus and metatarsus, and five toes. Thus "even our own bodies, and some of their most important organs, are brought into close and direct comparison with those of reptiles, which at first sight appear the inost monstrous productions of creation; and in the very hands and fingers with whieh we write their history, we recognise the type of the paddles of the ichthyosaurus and plesio

saurus.

• Buckland's Treatise, i. 213.

tures of the opossum family, found in the oolite at Stonesfield, near Oxford, stand as yet so solitarily, that we cannot consider them as proving that mammalia were added to reptiles. With, then, flocks of pterodac tyles flying in the air in pursuit of huge dragon-flies; gigantic crocodiles and tortoises crawling amidst the jungles of low, moist, and warm shores, and such monsters as the ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus swarming on the surface of the sea, while its depths were peopled by infinite varieties of fish, shelled and vertebrated; we can form some faint idea of what sort of world it was while the strata between the coal and the chalk were in the course of being deposited.

It is a pity the "Jew Book" does not particularise the day of the week in which such a scene could have been witnessed. It must have afforded fine sport for the heavenlies, who could have whiled away their time by "fly-fishing" for pterodactyles, when not engaged in bawling or trumpeting.

In the oolitic group the animal remains are nearly the same as in the preceding, but the species more varied; and in the cretaceous group some fishes are added, and the number of saurian reptiles diminished.

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SCOTTISH

EDINBURGH

ORACLE OF REASON

Or, philosophy Vindicated.

UNION

"FAITH'S EMPIRE IS THE WORLD; ITS MONARCH, GOD; ITS MINISTERS, THE PRIESTS;

No. 26.]

ITS SLAVES, THE PEOPLE."

EDITED FOR CHARLES SOUTHWELL, DURING HIS IMPRISONMENT,
BY. G. JACOB HOLYOAKE.

THE SOCRATICAL MODE OF

DISPUTATION.

This famous manner of disputing, according to some persons the least liable to objection of any, derives its name from Socrates, who acquired celebrity and great skill in the use of it. Dr. Watts recommends it to the study of young Christians, in his excellent work on the improvement of the mind, which contains advice it would be well if Christians would take. If I remember rightly, Dr. Franklin was fond of socratical disputation, but gave it up because he perverted it; which was silly. The mode is followed partially in our courts of justice, or more properly courts of law. It seems to consist in asking a few axiomatical questions which lead to the answers the questioners wish to elicit. Persons with false systems to support should generally avoid such interrogations, as they may be seduced into indiscreet admissions of the truth.

The following dialogue between a sceptic and a Jew-Booker may serve as an illustration of the mode of proceeding.

Sceptic.-Is it not true, sir, that the greatest of rogues get on best in this world ?

Jew-Booker.-Yes, true enough!

S-Then, generally speaking, not only the dead, but the live-stock property, of the earth, is in the hands of the worst of men? J.-B.-Just so: as the people in Derbyshire say.

S.-But the fulness of the earth, and the eattle upon a thousand hills are the lord's, according to the Jew Book?

J.-B.-Yes, the bible does say so, but what do you mean by it?

S.-I mean this, that it clearly seems that the lord selects the greatest scoundrels to be his stewards on earth; or, to speak after the manner of Matthew, he entrusts the greatest number of his talents to men of the least bonour and principle. But further, permit me to ask, does not the same book declare god to be no respecter of persons?

J.-B. O yes, and so I have always been taught that he is.

[PRICE ID

S.-You may have been taught so; but from your answers, it is plain that he is not of him as we do of men, he appears to have only a respecter of persons, but to speak the greatest respect for the greatest rascals, since he commits the good things of this life to the worst of men, who use them to suppress liberty, bolster up superstition, and degrade humanity.

J.-B.-Umph!

S.-I would ask you another question. What think ye of the intrigne, corruption, jesuitry, tergiversation, misery, and despair, Are these the every where around you? specimens of good you can thank god for ? Or perhaps you do not see these things at all, but, like Capel Loft in his critique on poor Bloomfield's Farmer's Boy," the sours of life less offend you than their sweet's delight."

J.-B.-I do not partake of feeling's like those, so you may save your sarcasm for those who do. I think, as all must think, that man has fallen, and the world has dege nerated.

65

as it

S.-Then the church's signifying was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall be," &c., amen, is so much nonsense; and if you admit it is, then I think all things were not good when god said in Genesis, he had made them so. For his son laid it down long after, that good trees bring forth infallibly good fruit. There seems a mistake somewhere. But, now on this subject, I remember your Jew Book calls us the "lords of creation."

J.-B.-The bible does, sir, and I rejoice in the noble distinction.

S. Then also should yonder poor wretch, in whose face despair and famine speak at once, who is worked harder than the horse, fed worse than the ass, and has a million chances against him of being damned everlastingly in addition-a misfortune from which both the others are exempt. If you rejoice in these distinctions of your race, I cannot compliment you upon your taste. Your Jew Book being made and kept true by act of parliament, it is well protected against being called false, whatever may be thought of it, but when I think of the poor man being the lord of creation, I feel 'tis a great pity it is G. J. H.

not true.

CHRISTIAN CONSISTENCY.

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and the distance to Syrius, the nearest of the fixeð stars, more than five hundred thousand times greater. The distance to the more remote among the fixed stars has never been calculated. But conceive, if it be possible, how immense the distance from our earth to the remotest star that telescope ever aided us to discover. Then imagine a circle drawn at that inconceivable distance all round our earth, and suppose a globe of sand of such stuper dous dimensions that its circumference should fill tp that mighty circle. Imagine each grain of that sand one million times less than the smallest aumalcula which microscope ever made visible. How utterly beyond the power of imagination must be the number of these grains that should go to make up the whole enormous mass! And now imagine that from that mass at the close of each million of eenone of these imperceptible grains were detached the whole immeasurable globe was thus dissolved, turies; how long, think you, would it require ore

even to imagine the period? Do you not feel that you are approaching a region of imagination that belongs not to man? If I asked you how many moments that period might contain, might I not seem to ask it in derision?

And yet each single moment it contains is milli ons on millions of times longer, compared to the period itself, than is the period compared to eternity Let such a globe be formed and thus lessen by one grain each million of centuries, until, grain by grain, it pass away. Let another of equal dimensions re place it, in like manner to lessen and to disappear. Then another and another, until thousands has bor added to thousands, and millions to millions stupendous succession. Then take the sum of these immeasurable periods, and deduct it from eternity you obtained a tenth, a thousandeth, a mil.

"Mr. OVERBURY.-Whether are of no religion is very little to us, but your attempts to propagate the sentiments that there is no god is calculated to produce disorder and confusion, and is a breach of the peace."-HOLYOAKE'S Committal. IGNORANCE and impudence, it is said, usually go hand-in-haud, and there can be no question of their close connexion in the persons of the Cheltenham Dogberries who presided at the committal of friend HOLYOAKE. One of these representatives of her majesty, who is stated to be the head of the church, said it was of very little consequence to them the prisoner's being of no religion. Very likely not, in a spiritual point of view, though it should be otherwise, but far different in a temporal, and so his worship showed; being cunning enough to know that upon the con-grain by grain? Do not your human senses refuse tinuance of superstition, usually called religion, depends the necessity for his magisterial authority, and all the machinery for the generation and support of villany, in the shape of policemen, magistrates, judges, lawyers, parsons, etc. etc. The fact being notorious, as may be proved by reference to prison statistics, that the great majority of unfortunate victims to bad laws, the usual occupants of such places, are those who are steeped to the lips in ignorance and credulity. But is it of little consequence to a Christian (?) magistrate that one of her majesty's subjects should be an Atheist-the disbeliever in the being of a god, the repudiator of all religions; and one who would, as soon as pos. sible, dispense with all the mummeries con nected with "the holy catholic," and every other church; beginning with the crowned or mitred head, and ending only with the scarlet-caped and be-staffed tail? Is it of little consequence to a Christian that a human being and a brother should place in jeopardy his eternal happiness by treating with contempt the warnings and threatenings of an almighty, jealous, and revengeful being; of whose existence, power, wishes, etc., all Christians profess to be well acquainted? Of what materials could that man be made who should say, and that sincerely, that it was of very little consequence to him to see another wilfully blinding his eyes and walking into a sea of molten lead ? If he were possessed of the ordinary feelings of humanity, would one not imagine he would try to prevent him, for his own sake; could he witness such a sight and not suffer severe mental agony? But what would that be to the portion of the damned in the Christian's hell? Read the following by the eloquent R. Dale Owen, copied from his delight tract on "Consistency," which should

Have

lionth part? Have you obtained the smallest ev
Have ye shortened eternity
pressible fraction?
even by one fleeting instant? Would ye be, even
by one single moment, nearer the end of eternity, d
these unimagined periods were come and past, than
you are at this day?

Now, it this period of eternity which, we are told, is to spent in heaven or hell!

A popular preacher, at Langton-street chapel, Bristol, used nearly the same words in as attempt to describe the torments of the damned, whilst over his head, as if in fiendish mockery of his sobbing congregation, were emblazoned in letters of burnished gold, the words, "GOD IS LOVE!"

And yet a Christian, and one in authority, could say it was very little to him to know that the prisoner before him would suffer this eternity of torture; which, supposing it to consist of merely the remorse arising from a knowledge of evil committed, and despair at the impossibility of escape from such thoughts, is enough to drive one mad to contemplate, But a Christian magistrate could, on the read by judgment seat, and in open court, say it troubled him but little to look upon one who I feel would be subject to such treatment! sick with the picture my limited imagination

every man, whether sceptic or believer :—

It has been calculated that the distance from hence to the sun is nearly one hundred millions of miles;

can paint of such a condition- totally disbelieving it; what would my feelings be could I think it fact!

But these men are liars, and the truth is not in them, when they profess to believe in a god, and that too a "jealous god," one who "visits the sins of the father even unto the third and fourth generation!" They are all of them PRACTICAL Infidels, acting connually disregardless of the existence of the being whose name they have always in their mouths. Not infidels in the vulgar acceptation of the term; for so-called Inficels are generally men moral, just, and humane; but as infidels to their professions of love for a good god, whilst acting like demons. We are told by the mawworms of the church that there is more joy in heaven over one sinner that repenteth, than over ninety and nine just persons that needeth no repentance, and yet this Christian says it is of little consequence thin that there is a sinner in the world without hope of redemption; but that it is of consequence that the peace of her majesty should be preserved from even the shadow of a chance of violation. Here then we have her majesty Victoria, by the grace of god, queen of England, placed above the deity, whose subject she is, and her peace considered before his; and that too by one who professes to believe In the almighty power of this jealous god, his capability of depriving him of life, and of consigning him to everlasting damnation. It is clear, if the Christian's god be so jealous of the love of his creatures, as they represent Lim to be, that the surest way to secure bis love would be to get those to love him who do not now; and quite regardless of mundane affairs, look only to heaven and its joys: the joys of this world are finite, those of another infinite. "Were I a religionist-did I truly, firmly, consistently believe, as millions say they do, that the knowledge and practice of religion in this life influences destiny in another-the spirit of truth be my witness, religion should be to me every thing. * would esteem one soul gained to heaven worth a world of torture. I would kindle the hot enthusiasm of youth, till it blazed with boly tervour, consuming by its scorching in. fluence all human feelings, and human reserves, and human interests; and if reason melted away before the burning power, and the convulsions of conversion were succeeded by the ravings of insanity, that should not for a moment arrest my course. Believing that it is better to enter into heaven insane, than, having the soundest reason, to be cast into hell-fire, in a world changed to one great lunatic asylum, I would see but the nursery of heaven! What then should a Chrisfan and a magistrate do, when a sinner is brought before him who states his disbelief in

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• Dale Owen, "On Consistency."

I

this said jealous god? Should he not, as good Christian, first "Seek the kingdom of god and his righteousness," with a view that "all other things should be added thereunto This he would have done had he succeeded in turning the "unresisting youth" from the error of his ways, plucking him “like a brand from the burning." And would not this sug gest itself as the proper course: first to show the misguided man the fallacy of his disbelief and the danger to himself if he did not reject it; and next, the immoral tendency of such doctrines, in a state of society like our own? And not, without any attempt to convince him of his error, commit him to a dungeon for conduct "calculated to produce disorder and confusion," saying that the preservation of his soul, and even god's happiness, was of little moment when compared with England's queen-or rather, I should say, England's hell-hounds, born of sin and the devil, called parsons-monsters who feed on human flesh, and are drunk with the blood of humanity Who, so fond of blood themselves, would eram their dupes with the blood and carcass of their god! One of these vampires has given to the world some 44 slaughterhouse rhymes," containing a lie, taken figuratively or literally, but strongly illustrative of their never-dying thirst for blood; they are

There is a fountain filed with blood, Drawn from Emanuel's veins, And sinners plunged beneath that flood Were these demons to obtain a footing in Lose all their guilty stains, such a place as they describe heaven to be, instead of singing "holy! holy! holy !" they would flap their horrid wings, and howl→→

Blood! blood!! blood!!! that we may drink damnation to the damned in the skulls of those who endeavoured to subvert our power on earth!" Heaven would be hell with their presence, and hell a heaven by their absence,

But to return, by converting the prisoner to christianity, a threefold object would have been gained, viz., the wresting of a soul from the devil, the addition of another to the army of the lord, and, seeing that all good Christians obey those placed in authority over them, her majesty the queen would have been saved any expense for maintenance and detention on the said prisoner's account, in order that her peace may be preserved. Not only are these benefits lost, but additional mischief is likely to accrue, according to the Cheltenham Free Press, by the course pursued, for the forth from his dungeon with his heart steeled editor says, "He (the prisoner) will walk against conviction, and with a stronger datermination than ever to obtain converts to his mode of thinking. Aye, that will be,

and his friends in the meantime will exert themselves more than ever to show the ab

surdities of the system, said to be for the sup- | gard of decency or truth his philosophical

port of a god, under which such cruelties and villanies are practised. For "The great truth has finally gone forth to all the ends of the earth, that man shall no longer render an account to man for his belief, over which he has no control. Henceforward, nothing shall prevail upon us to praise or blame any one for that which he can no more change, than he can the hue of his skin or the height of his stature." •

W. C.

knowledge, for the purpose of supporting his hypothesis-does he suppose he is to be allowed to do all this, and then to be treated by his opponents as though he was a consistent and honest inquirer after truth? Gentlemanly feeling would be thrown away in such a case. Mr. M. would have laughed at a serious attempt to refute a work, whose gross inconsistencies, and "bold assumptions," would to all inquiring and logical minds be its own refutation, and which would not live a day, were education more generally diffused.

Can he do so, every

MR. MACKINTOSH'S CHALLENGE! Whatever assumptions on behalf of athe IN consequence of the forcible detention ism the reviews may contain, there are like. of my friend HOLYOAKE by some Gloucester-wise many arguments against godism. Why shire godities, he is unable to reply to Mr. not reply to them? M.'s letter of last week; and being myself flippant and unjust word or expression will guilty of the same misconduct as that char-fall, and that too, with additional weight ged upon G. J. H., and, of course, open to upon the "impudent" and "stupid" author the same challenge, I shall say a few words of them. in reply to Mr. M.

truth of atheism. It was never intended by
Mr. M. calls upon the editor to prove the
the writers in this work to attempt to prove
the truth of atheism, but merely to show the
probabilityof its truthfulness, over its opposite,
theism. In fact, as quoted by Mr. M., the
editor stated that he did not pretend to
know that there is no god," and unless it be
known that there is no god, atheism can
never be proved to be truth; the obverse, of
Whenever we
course, applies to theism.
comes a question of probabilities, and atheism
cannot arrive at positive knowledge,, it be
has been argued throughout as such in the

The above gent, begins his letter by abusing the editor for using improper language in his review, and continuing throughout in the same strain, concludes by stating, that he" should be well pleased to discuss the question in the Oracle," provided it could be carried on in a proper spirit, but this (he says) it would appear, cannot be done, because the high-priest of atheism is impudent, trifling, discursive, bigotted, stupid, &c.; and that" it were well, for the sake of peace, to shut up the book and close the argument." Mr. Mackintosh has not commenced any argument, and furnishes the above objections as his reasons for declining any, unless it can be carried on in a proper spirit. Now, I Mr. M., "if there is no god, say so at once, The expression of the editor, quoted by should presume that the editor in reviewing never mind the consequences," was used by the work in question, treated it, as he ima-him whilst contending against the expediency gined, according to its deserts; at any rate, of setting up a god. And though, if taken that was the course I pursued. Had the by itself, without the context, might lead to mistaken to mean "if you believe," &c; a wrong impression, taken with it cannot be it is upon the belief or disbelief in a god the question has been argued; never once has it been "dogmatically asserted," that there is

pages.

no god.

for

tempted a refutation of the objections to the For my own part, until Mr. M. has at complained of, I shall not consider myself "Dissertation," contained in the reviews called upon to discuss the general question. W. C.

"Dissertation" contained evidences of a desire on the part of the writer to arrive at truth, which ever way that might be, and not a determination to uphold a certain opi nion, quite regardless of the means by which it could be accomplished; had it been void of dogmatism and abuse, and not, as it has been shown to be, filled with both-had this been the case, I would say that any other than calm, argumentative reasoning, would be open to objection, and the user of it deserving of reprobation. Does Mr. Mackintosh imagine that he is to be quietly allowed to write and publish a work upon a question of vital importance to the social happiness of mankind, with the avowed object of establishing an opinion of his own; that he is to be allowed to abuse and call by op- MY DEAR CHILTON.I had a glorions probrious names those holding an opposite opinion; and to use with a shameless disre-meeting last night, which I expect will be reported in the Cheltenham Free Press-a very independent paper, considering the truckling

212

• Lord Brougham,

A VOICE FROM CHELTENHAM
GAOL,

Cheltenham Gaol, June 3rd, 1842.

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