I. THE study of rhetoric was introduced into our country in about the same way as that of grammar, but with somewhat greater difficulty, since, as is well known, its practice was at times actually prohibited. To remove any doubt on this point, I shall append an ancient decree of the senate, as well as an edict of the censors:

As the

"In the consulship of Gaius Fannius Strabo and 161 B.C Marcus Valerius Messala the praetor Marcus Pomponius laid a proposition before the senate. result of a discussion about philosophers and rhetoricians, the senate decreed that Marcus Pomponius, the praetor, should take heed and provide, in whatever way seemed in accord with the interests of the State and his oath of office, that they be not allowed to live in Rome." Some time afterward the censors Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Lucius Licinius 92 B.C. Crassus issued the following edict about the same class of men : "It has been reported to us that there be men who have introduced a new kind of training, and that our young men frequent their schools; that these men have assumed the title of Latin rhetoricians, and that young men spend whole days with them in idleness. Our forefathers

a This word, like grammaticus, had a different force from that of the corresponding English word; it meant a teacher of declamation and oratory.

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discere et quos in ludos itare vellent, instituerunt. Haec nova, quae praeter consuetudinem ac morem maiorum fiunt, neque placent neque recta videntur. Quapropter et eis qui eos ludos habent, et eis qui eo venire consuerunt, videtur faciundum ut ostenderemus nostram sententiam, nobis non placere.”

Paulatim et ipsa utilis honestaque apparuit, multique eam et praesidii causa et gloriae appetiverunt. Cicero ad praeturam usque etiam Graece declamitavit, Latine vero senior quoque et quidem cum consulibus Hirtio et Pansa, quos discipulos et grandis praetextatos vocabat. Cn. Pompeium quidam historici tradiderunt sub ipsum civile bellum, quo facilius C. Curioni promptissimo iuveni, causam Caesaris defendenti, contradiceret, repetisse declamandi consuetudinem ; M. Antonium, item Augustum ne Mutinensi quidem bello omisisse. Nero Caesar primo imperii anno, publice quoque bis antea, declamavit. Plerique autem oratorum etiam declamationes ediderunt. Quare magno studio hominibus iniecto, magna etiam professorum ac doctorum profluxit copia, adeoque floruit, ut nonnulli ex infima fortuna in ordinem senatorium atque ad summos honores processerint.

Sed ratio docendi nec una omnibus, nec singulis eadem semper fuit, quando vario modo quisque Cf. Seneca, Controv. 1. praef. 11 ff. Cf. Aug. lxxxiv. 1.

a

determined what they wished their children to learn and what schools they desired them to attend. These innovations in the customs and principles of our forefathers do not please us nor seem proper. Therefore it appears necessary to make our opinion known, both to those who have such schools and to those who are in the habit of attending them, that they are displeasing to us."

By degrees rhetoric itself came to seem useful and honourable, and many devoted themselves to it as a defence and for glory. Cicero continued to declaim in Greek as well as Latin up to the time of his praetorship, and in Latin even when he was getting on in years; and that too in company with the future consuls Hirtius and Pansa, whom he calls "his pupils and his big boys." a Some historians assert that Gnaeus Pompeius resumed the practice of declaiming just before the civil war, that he might be the better able to argue against Gaius Curio, a young man of very ready tongue, who was espousing Caesar's cause; and that Marcus Antonius, and Augustus as well, did not give it up even during the war at Mutina.' The emperor Nero declaimed in the first year of his reign, and had also done so in public twice before. Furthermore, many even of the orators published declamations. In this way general enthusiasm was aroused, and a great number of masters and teachers flocked to Rome, where they were so well received that some advanced from the lowest estate to senatorial dignity and to the highest magistracies.

But they did not all follow the same method of teaching, and the individual teachers also varied in their practice, since each one trained his pupils

discipulos exercuerunt. Nam et dicta praeclare per omnes figuras, per casus et apologos aliter atque aliter exponere, et narrationes cum breviter ac presse tum latius et uberius explicare consuerant; interdum Graecorum scripta convertere, ac viros illustres laudare vel vituperare; quaedam etiam ad usum communis vitae instituta tum1 utilia et necessaria, tum1 perniciosa et supervacanea ostendere; saepe fabulis fidem firmare aut demere, quod genus thesis et anasceuas et catasceuas Graeci vocant; donec sensim haec exoleverunt,2 et ad controversiam ventum est.

Veteres controversiae aut ex historiis trahebantur, sicut sane nonnullae usque adhuc, aut ex veritate ac re, si qua forte recens accidisset; itaque locorum etiam appellationibus additis proponi solebant. Sic certe collectae editaeque se habent, ex quibus non alienum fuerit unam et alteram exempli causa ad verbum referre.

"Aestivo tempore adulescentes urbani cum Ostiam venissent, litus ingressi, piscatores trahentes rete adierunt et pepigerunt, bolum quanti emerent; nummos solverunt; diu exspectaverunt, dum retia extraherentur; aliquando extractis, piscis nullus affuit, sed sporta auri obsuta. Tum emptores bolum suum aiunt, piscatores suum.

1 tum... tum, Stephanus, Vinetus; dum . . . dum, mss. 2 exoleverunt, Beroaldus; exoluerunt, L (Pontanus); exoluerint, VOGI; exsoluerint, N.

a That is, stories and fables (Gk. ȧróλoyo) introduced by way of illustration. Cf. Quint. 5. 11. 19 ff.

They corresponded in general with the Roman suasoriae,

in various ways. For they would explain fine speeches with regard to their figures, incidents and illustrations," now in one way and now in another, and compose narratives sometimes in a condensed and brief form, again with greater detail and flow of words. Sometimes they would translate Greek works, and praise or censure distinguished men. They would show that some practices in everyday life were expedient and essential, others harmful and superfluous. Frequently they defended assailed the credibility of myths, an exercise which the Greeks call "destructive" and "constructive" criticism. But finally all these exercises went out of vogue and were succeeded by the debate.

or

The earlier debates were based either upon historical narrative, as indeed is sometimes the case at present, or upon some event of recent occurrence in real life. Accordingly they were usually presented with even the names of the localities included. At any rate that is the case with the published collections, from which it may be enlightening to give one or two specimens word for word.

"Some young men from the city went to Ostia in the summer season, and arriving at the shore, found some fishermen drawing in their nets. They made a bargain to give a certain sum for the haul. The money was paid and they waited for some time until the nets were drawn ashore. When they were at last hauled out, no fish was found in them, but a closed basket of gold. Then the purchasers said that the catch belonged to them, the fishermen that it was theirs."

which with the controversiae formed the stock exercises of the schools of rhetoric.