MEDALS RELATING TO THE COLONIES OF ENGLAND IN NORTH AMERICA, STRUCK IN EUROPE.

BY HON. GEORGE M. PARSONS, LL.D.

N 1664 a war broke out between England and Holland, although a treaty of alliance between the two nations had been concluded so recently as 1662. England was the aggressor and without any provocation. Hume in his History says that "the rivalship of commerce had in England begotten a violent enmity against the neighboring republic." He further says that the Dutch by industry and frugality were enabled to undersell the English in every market, and retained possession of the most lucrative branches of commerce; and the English merchants had the mortification to find that all their attempts to extend their trade were still turned by the vigilance of their rivals, to their loss and dishonor. Their indignation increased when they considered the superior naval power of England, the bravery of her officers and seamen, and her favorable situation which enabled her to intercept the whole Dutch commerce. By the prospect of these advantages they were strongly prompted to make war upon the States, and at once to ravish from them by force what they could not obtain, or could obtain but slowly, by superior skill and industry.

The first step taken by the English was a declaration by the Commons that "the wrongs, dishonours, and indignities, offered to the English by subjects of the United Provinces, were the greatest obstructions to foreign trade." Although no supplies were voted by Parliament, this declaration was considered as a sufficient sanction for vigorous measures. A squadron of twenty-two vessels was sent to the west coast of Africa, and the commercial settlements made there by the Dutch were seized. The fleet then sailed to America, and took possession of the Dutch colony on the Hudson, then called Nova Belgia, now New York. The Dutch immediately retaliated in the same manner on the African coast, and inflicted upon the English even greater injuries than those which they had suffered.

In 1665 war was formally declared by Charles II against Holland; large appropriations were made by Parliament, and a private contribution of

£100,000 was made by the merchants of London. The war continued for two years with varying success. France and Denmark ranged themselves with Holland, but the brunt of the fighting was borne by the navy of the latter country. In 1666 a sea-fight of four days occurred. The first day's engagement was ended by the approach of night; on the second and third days the English were worsted and obliged to retire to their coast. Their vessels were only saved, in one case by darkness, and in the other by a heavy mist which put an end to all operations. On the fourth day the Dutch vessels retired to their harbors.

The historian claims that the English were victorious. It is a fact, however, that the first proposition for a peace was made by Charles. He had failed to gain the commercial advantages which he had expected, and he was without money for the payment of his sailors; on the other hand, the Dutch were in good heart for a continuance of the conflict, and their treasury was well supplied. After some prolonged negotiation, commissioners met at Breda to settle the terms of peace, without having made any stipulation as to the cessation of hostilities. The English commissioners made difficulties by insisting upon conditions unacceptable to the other side. At this time, although supplies had been voted by the English Parliament, the king neglected to make the necessary preparations for the continuance of the war, and the navy was in no better condition than in time of peace, while the Dutch navy was thoroughly prepared for further conflicts. The English commissioners proposed that hostilities should cease until all unsettled questions were adjusted. De Witt, the Grand Pensionary of Holland and at the head of the government, knowing the weak condition of England and the strong condition of his own nation, secured the rejection of this proposition. The negotiations were purposely protracted, and a number of war vessels and fire ships were sent to the English harbors. They ascended the Medway, on which was the naval depot of England, burned a number of war vessels, took several towns of importance, and excited fears that they might ascend the Thames as far as London bridge. The whole country was alarmed, and in the highest degree mortified at the ravages committed by a nation which had been regarded as an inferior. The English commissioners were instructed to recede from their demands, and the Peace of Breda was signed July 10, 1667.

Acadia, Nova Scotia, was ceded to the French and New York to the English. This was the only acquisition of importance which the English gained by the war, and not much valued at the time. It proved, however, in the following century, during the war with the American Colonies, to be of great value. If New York had been restored to the Dutch, the English would have been much embarrassed in their military operations; as events happened, it is also evident that the final negotiations for peace were much simplified to the Americans in having but one power to deal with, when seeking for the recognition of colonial independence.

These are the facts which gave an interest to a medal which was issued by the City of Amsterdam, in commemoration of the Peace of Breda. It is shown in Figure 1 of the plate of illustrations. On the obverse, prominent in the foreground LEO BATAVUs, the lion of the Batavians, stands in defiant attitude, and with aggressive mien, master of the field, surrounded by arms, while beyond him is the far-stretching sea covered with vessels of war. The

legend, in which the date 1667 is indicated by a chronogram, interprets the scene: SIC FINES NOSTROS LEGES TVTAMVR ET VNDAS (Thus we protect our territories, our institutions and our seas). The reverse is covered by an inscription in Latin, which recites that the Batavians (the name applied by the Romans to the ancient inhabitants of the Low Countries) having successfully defended their hereditary institutions against three most powerful Spanish kings, were afterwards, once and again, obliged to take up arms against their British neighbors, and by supreme bravery in war established peace and the restoration of commerce with mankind; hence "hoc monumentum" decreed by the Consuls and Senate of Amsterdam. This medal is probably the first one issued to commemorate any event connected with the early history of the English Colonies of North America, and its history affords a proper introduction to the consideration of later events.

The American Colonies, at an early stage of their contest with the home government, applied to France for assistance, and many circumstances secured for their application a prompt and favorable reception. There had been frequent and long periods, during which hostilities prevailed between England and France; while during the intervals of peace, the feelings of the parties towards each other were not by any means of a friendly character. France therefore watched at first with interest, then with pleasure, the resistance of the American Colonies to the unfriendly legislation of the mother country.

In addition to this feeling there was another one, having reference to the war which wrested from France the larger part of her own North American colonial possessions, and which was concluded by the treaty of 1762. In that war Great Britain and her Colonies were allies. The Court of France thought it possible that the Colonies, fearing lest an effort might be made by France to regain her lost possessions, would submit to the home government. The idea also obtained with the Court, that if the controversy were terminated, whether by submission or by conquest, the large army and powerful fleet which the English would have at hand, would be perilous to the safety of France and of her Colonies. It was therefore the interest of France that the breach between England and her American Colonies should be widened, until a complete separation should be established.

Another condition of feeling must be noticed. The spirit of liberty which finally burst forth in the Revolution of 1789, was rapidly spreading. The Third Estate, composed of the mass of the people, had reached maturity and was prepared to assert itself at the first opportunity. Although not possessing even the smallest share of political power, it was the source of a public sentiment, which existed independent of court, camp or church. This sentiment was in warmest sympathy with all the aspirations for political independence which manifested themselves in such resolute manner beyond the seas. Thus the several political classes of France, while hostile towards each other to a degree which made the subsequent Revolution inevitable, were of one mind and of one sentiment with reference to the subject of American Independence.

Governed by these influences, France gave prompt and timely assistance to the Colonies. From the time of the arrival of the first commissioners from America, in March, 1776, until the treaty between them and France in

April, 1778, all the aid was rendered that was possible without coming to open hostilities with England. Money was liberally advanced, ships laden with supplies were continually starting from French ports, while in these ports American vessels, not only merchant vessels but privateers with their captures, found shelter.

In April, 1777, Lafayette embarked for America in a vessel purchased by himself. He went without an army, but his openly espousing the cause of the new Republic was equal to an army with banners. On the 17th of October following, the British forces under Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga to the Colonial troops. This victory was a fortunate event, independently of the encouragement it gave to the Americans. It satisfied the Court of France that the Americans would establish their independence, and it secured at once a treaty of alliance between the two countries, which was concluded on the sixth of February, 1778. “The absolute and unlimited independence of the United States was described as the essential end of the defensive alliance, and the two parties mutually engaged not to lay down their arms until it should be assured by the treaties terminating the war." The fact that the treaty had been concluded was formally communicated to the English government on the 13th of March, and war between England and France immediately ensued.

After the conclusion of this treaty, an effort was at once made by France to secure the coöperation of Spain in her military operations against England. In this effort she encountered many obstacles. The liberal sentiments which prevailed in France and moved her so readily to the alliance with the United States, did not exist in Spain. The Court had no sympathy with the feelings which led to the Declaration of Independence, and among the people there was no public opinion that could operate to influence the Court. Besides, there were numerous Spanish Colonies on the American continent, whose allegiance would be put in peril by the success of the revolting English Colonies. Assistance was however occasionally rendered by Spain to the United States, and their privateers were permitted to enter Spanish ports with their prizes, but the Court would not join France in her hostilities against England until it was tempted by the prospect of regaining Gibraltar. Finally, on the 12th of April, 1779, a treaty was concluded by which the two countries were bound to join in an invasion of England, and not to agree to a cessation of hostilities by treaty or by truce until Gibraltar was surrendered to Spain. The United States was not a party to this alliance, and profited by it only from the fact that England had gained another enemy.

France was the only ally of the United States, the only nation from which they could hope to receive direct and active assistance. There happened however in 1780, an event which practically arrayed the whole of Europe against England. In the conflict between England and her enemies, it became a matter of great importance that the supplies which they received from neutral powers should be cut off,- not only supplies of arms and munitions of war, which were contraband, but all other supplies which might be necessary for their subsistence. It had been established by numerous treaties that the flag protected the cargo, and that the ships of neutral powers were at liberty to carry on traffic in everything that was not contraband of war. England paid but little attention to this rule. She declared, for instance, that

she would not permit ship timber to be carried into French ports. On all occasions she exercised the power which a superior navy gave to her in such an offensive and overbearing manner that indignation was everywhere excited, and with it a determined spirit of resistance was aroused.

After much negotiation between the different powers of Europe who had suffered from the aggressions of the English, their attention was directed to Catharine of Russia, and she was urged to take position at the head of the movement for a combined protection of the rights of neutrals. The result was that the Empress yielded to the general wish, and on the 8th of March issued the famous declaration that "Neutral ships shall enjoy a free navigation, even from port to port and on the coasts of the belligerent powers. Free ships, free all goods except contraband. 'Contraband' are arms and munitions of war, and nothing else. No port is blockaded unless the enemies' ships, in adequate number, are near enough to make the entry dangerous. These principles shall rule decisions on the legality of prizes." Many of the neutral powers on the continent acceded to this code during the year, and ultimately all accepted it. This league isolated England and restrained her power on the sea.

Figure 2 of the plate of illustrations shows a beautiful medal issued in commemoration of the auspicious league. The obverse, not shown, is occupied by a bust in bold relief of the full-bosomed Empress Catharine, Autocrat of the Russians. On the reverse are seen, on the shore of the sea and at the water's edge, Mercury with empty cornucopia, and a sailor, both in suppliant attitude. In the middle field, on a shell which floats on the water, stands Neptune defiantly brandishing his trident. The simple inscription LIBERUM MARE (Free Sea), and the expressive attitude of the god, announce in sufficiently plain language to the Patron of commerce and his followers that there shall be no impediments to their enterprise. It may well be imagined that the designer of this medal had in his mind the scene in the Mediterranean, described by Virgil, where Neptune rising from the bottom of the sea looks with indignation upon the disturbance which the aggressive subjects of Aeolus had created in his dominions, and suddenly cutting short his rebuke with the memorable terse “ Quos, Ego-" he dismissed the winds to their cave, composed the sea,

Aeneid, I, 147.

"Atque rotis summas levibus perlabitur undas.” During the negotiations relating to the league, England made every possible effort to prevent Holland from becoming a party to it. Hitherto the policy of the Dutch had been determined by English influence. The Stadtholder and the Prime Minister might as well have been English subjects, so completely did they subserve English interests with but little reference to those of their own country. All efforts were however unavailing. The commerce of the Netherlands was large, and they who had carried it on had suffered more than the merchants of any other nation, from the violation by England of the rights of neutrals. Notwithstanding the subserviency of its rulers to English dictation, the country resolved to take the step which its interests required.

The English were prompt in action, even to anticipating the course of the government of the Netherlands. As soon as it became certain that the