(the Romans, not having the diphthong ei in their language, represent the Greek & sometimes by e and sometimes by i, but these vowels, of course. are always long); e. g., Galatea, Medea, Eneas, Dareus or Darius, Iphi genia, Alexandria, Antiochia, Nicomedia, Samaria, Seleucia, Thalia, Arius, Basilius, nosocomium, and the adjectives Epicureus, Pythagoreus, spondeus, and the like: but when the Greek is ea or ta, the e and i are short, as in idea, philosophia, theologia. The same is the case with the patronymic words in ides, since the Greek may be ions, as in Priamides and acides; or ɛions, as in Atrides, Pelides, which are derived from Atreus and Peleus. The only exceptions to this rule are, that platea (a street) has the e short, though, according to the Greek harɛia, it ought to be long, and that chorea is sometimes used instead of chorea (xopcía). Some of the late Roman poets use academia instead of academia, although in Greek writers it is always long, whether spelled with ε or with .*

Note 2.-It is a part of the above rule, that a long vowel or diphthong at the end of a word, when the word following begins with a vowel, is usually made short in the thesis of a verse.† (See above, chap. i., 4,. note 1).

[§ 17.] 3. Usage (auctoritas) alone makes the vowel in the first syllable of mater, frater, pravus, mano (I flow), dico, duco, miror, nitor, scribo, dono, pono, utor, muto, sumo, cura, &c. long; and short in pater, avus, cado, maneo, gravis, rego, tego, bibo, minor, colo, moror, probo, domus, sono, soror, and others. It must be presumed that the student makes himself acquainted with the quantity of such words as these by practice, for rules can be given only with regard to derivatives. It must farther be observed that the i in the following words is long: formica, lectica, lorica, vesica, urtica, hemina, resina, sagīna, salīva, castīgo, and formido.

a. Derivative words retain the quantity of their root, as in declension and conjugation: thus the a in ămor and ămo is short, and therefore also in ămoris, ămat, ămabam, ămavi, &c. except when the consonants after the vowel of the root produce a difference. New words formed from roots likewise retain the quantity; as from amoămor, amicus, ămabilis; from lux, lucis-luceo, lucidus from māter-māternus, mātertera; and from finis-finio, finitio, finitimus, &c.

[ 18.] With regard to Conjugation, however, the following rules also must be observed:

1. The perfect and supine, when they consist of two syllables, and the tenses formed from them, have the first syllable long, even when in the present tense it is short, e. g., video, vidi; fūgio, fūgi; lēgo, lēgi, lēgisse, lēgeram, &c. (except, however, when one vowel stands before another,

* [Compare Anthon's Lat. Pros., ed. 1842, p. 22, not.]—Am. Ed. t[Because the long vowel or diphthong loses one of its component vowels by elision, and there is no stress of the voice to lengthen again the remaining short one.]-Am. Ed.

[According to the theory of Grimm (Deutsche Grammatik, vol. i.,

in which case the general rule remains in force, as in rũo, rũi, dirũi); video, visum; moveo, motum, mōtus, mõturus.* Seven dissyllable perfects, however, and nine dissyllable supines, together with their compounds, make their penultima short; viz., bibi, dědi, fidi (from findo), stēti, stīti, tuli, and scidi (from scindo), and dătum, rătum, sătum, itum, litum, citum, quitum, situm, and rútum. Sisto makes its supine stătum, whence status, a, um, and the compounds adstitum, destitum, restitum.

2. Perfects which are formed by reduplication, as tundo, tŭtŭdi; cano, cecini; pello, pěpůli, have the first two syllables short; but the second sometimes becomes long by position, as in mordeo, momordi; tendo, tětendi. Pedo and cædo are the only two words which retain the long vowel in the syllable which forms the root, pepēdi, cecīdi; whereas cãdo, in accordance with the rule, has cecidi.‡

3. The perfect posui and the supine positum have the o short, although in pono it is long.

With regard to Declension, we must notice the exception that the words lar, pār, sāl, and pēs shorten their vowel throughout their declension: sălis, pedis, &c.

[ 19.] In the formation of new words by Derivation, there are several exceptions to the above rule. The following words make the short vowel long: măcer, macero; legere, lex, lēgis, lēgare; règo, rex, rēgis, rēgula; tego, tēgula; secus, sēcius; sedeo, sēdes; sĕro, sēmen, sementis; lino, litera (if we do not prefer littera); stips, stipis, stipendium; suspicor, suspicio; persono, persōna; voco, vox, vocis; and homo, húmanus. The following words have a short vowel, although it is long in the root; lăbare, from lābi ; nătare,

p. 1056), those verbs which change a short vowel in the root, or present tense, into a long e in the perfect, had originally a reduplication; thus,

It must be borne in mind, however, that the remarks here made do not apply to such preterites as lūsi, rīsi, misi, &c., from ludo, rideo, mitto, &c., the preterites in these verbs having been formed by the insertion of s, as ludsi, ridsi, mittsi, and the consonant or consonants before the s having been subsequently dropped for the sake of euphony. (Pritchard, Origin of Celtic Nations, p. 151.)]—Am. Ed.

*[The long syllables in visum, mōtum, flētum, &c., are owing to a change from earlier forms; thus, visum comes from vidsum; motum, from movitum, through the intermediate mortum; fletum, from flēvitum, fleitum, &c. But rutum, &c., are formed by syncope, and therefore continue short.]-Am. Ed.

+ [The seven dissyllable perfects are, in reality, no exceptions at all, but are all reduplicating tenses, some of which have dropped the first syllable, instead of contracting the first two into one. (Anthon's Lat. Pros., p. 32, not.)]-Am. Ed.

[The first syllable in reduplicating preterites is short, as a matter of course, since it consists of a short prefix. The second syllable follows the quantity of the verbal root. Hence arise the two exceptions mentioned in the text, namely, cedo and pedo, where the first syllable of the verbal root is long. The early form of the perfect of cedo must have been cecadi. (Consult Priscian, x., 4, p. 489, ed. Putsch. Pott, Etymol. Forsch., vol. i., p. 19, seqq. Kühner, Gr. Gr., vol. i., p. 84, seqq. Bopp, Vergleich. Gram., p. 697, seqq.)]-Am. Ed.

[Struve thinks that the old form of pono was posno, thus accounting for the s in the perfect and supine, this letter having been dropped in the present. (Ueber die Lat. Declin., &c., p. 283.)]—Am. Ed.

from nare; păciscor, from pax, pacis ; ambitus and ambitio, from ambire, ambitum; dicux, from dicere; fides and perfidus, from fido and fidus (and we regularly find infidus); molestus, from moles; nota and notare, from nōtus; odium, from odi; sopor, from sopire; dux, ducis, and redux, reducis, from duco; lucerna, from luceo; status, statio, stăbilis, stabulum must be derived from sisto, unless we suppose that they are likewise, shortened from stātum (from stare).

[ 20.] The Terminations, or final syllables, by means of which an adjective is formed from a verb or a substantive, are of a different kind. Among these, alis, aris, arius, aceus, anus, ivus, and osus have a long vowel; but idus, icus, and icius a short one; e. g., letālis, vulgāris, montānus, æstivus, vinōsus, avīdus, bellicus, patricius. A long i, however, occurs in amicus, apricus, pudicus, anticus, and posticus, and in the substantives mendicus and umbilicus. The terminations ilis and bilis have the i short when they make derivatives from verbs, but long when from substantives; e. g., facilis, docilis, and amabilis, but civilis, hostilis, puerīlis, senilis, &c. The i in the termination inus may be long or short: it is long in adjectives derived from names of animals and places, as anserīnus, asimīnus, equinus, lupīnus, Caudinus, Latinus, and a few others, such as divinus, genuinus, clandestinus, intestinus, marinus, peregrinus, and vicīnus; it is short in most adjectives which express time, as crastinus, diutinus, pristīnus, serotinus, hornotinus, perendinus, and in those which indicate a material or substance, as ada. mantinus, bombycīnus, crystallinus, elephantinus, cedrinus, faginus, oleaginus. Some adjectives expressive of time, however, have the i long, viz., matu, tīnus, vespertinus, and repentīnus.

1

[§ 21.] (b) Compounded words retain the quantity of the vowels of their elements: thus, from ăvus and nepos we make abăvus and abnepos; from prāvus, deprāvo; from probus, improbus; from.jūs (jūris), perjūrus; from lego (I read), perlego; and from lego (I despatch), ablego, delego, collega. Even when the vowel is changed, its quantity remains the same: e. g., laedo, illido; caedo, incido; aequus, iniquus; fauces, suffoco; claudo, recludo; fucio, efficio; cădo, incido; rătus, irritus; rēgo, erīgo; lego, eligo. We may, therefore, infer from compounded words the quantity of those of which they consist; e. g., from adōro, admiror, and abutor we conclude that oro, miror, and utor have the first syllable long; and from commoror and desuper that the first syllable in moror and super is short, which is not always accurately distinguished in pronunciation, because these syllables have the accent. (See Chap. IV.)

We shall mention here, by way of example, a few more compounds from which the quantity of the vowels in their elements may be inferred. We shall choose such as cannot be mentioned in any of the subsequent lists, and present them in the third person singular of the present tense. We have a long vowel in exhalat, conclamat, allatrat, delibat, constipat, evitat, irritat, deplorat, enōdat, compōtat, refutat, obdurat, and communit; and a short one in exărat, compărat, enătat, irrigat, alligat, perfricat, erudit, expolit, devărat, comprobat, computat, recubat, and suppudet.

But there are some exceptions, and the following compounded words change the long vowel into a short one: dejero and pejero, from jūro; causidicus, fatidicus, maledicus, veridicus, from dicere; agnitus and cognitus, from

notus; innub(us), -a, and pronŭb(us), -a, from nūbo.* The case is reversed in imbecillus from baculus.

[ 22.] In respect to Composition with Prepositions, it is to be remarked that prepositions of one syllable which end in a vowel are long, and those which end in a consonant are short: deduco, aboleo, pĕrimo. Tra (formed from trans), as in trādo, traduco, is long; but the o (for ob) in omitto and operior is short. Pro, in Greek words, is short, as in propheta; but prologus, propola, and prōpino form exceptions. In Latin words pro is long; e. g., prodo, promitto; but in many it is short; profugio, profugus, pronepos, profiteor, profari, profanus, profestus, profecto, proficiscor, profundus, protervus, procella, and a few others, the derivation of which is doubtful, as proceres, propitius, properare; in some the quantity is undecided. Se and di (for dis) are long; the only exceptions are dirimo and disertus. Re is short; it is long only in the impersonal verb refert: in all other cases where it appears long, the consonant which follows it must be doubled (in verse), as in reppuli, repperi, rettuli, rettudi, receido, redduco, relligio, relliquiæ; the four perfects, reppuli, repperi, rettuli, and rettudi, appear to have been pronounced and spelled in this way, even in prose. In the same manner, reddo, reddere, arose from do. The termination a in prepositions of two syllables is long, as in contradico; all the others are short, as antefero, praetereo.

[ 23.] When the first word of a composition is not a preposition, it is necessary to determine the quantity of the final vowel (a, e, i, o, u, y) of the first word. 1. a. is long, as in quare and quapropter, except in quasi. 2. e is mostly short, as in calefacio (notice especially neque, nequeo, nefas, nefastus, nefarius, něfandus), but long in nequam, nēquidquam, nequaquam, and nemo (which is contracted from ne and hemo, the ancient form for homo); also in sedecim and the pronouns mēmet, mecum, tecum, and secum; in venēficus, vidēlicet,§ vēcors, and vēsanus. 3. i is short, e. g., significo, sacrilegus, cornicen, tubicen, omnipotens, undique; but long in compounded pronouns, as quilibet, utrique, in ibidem, ubique, utrobique, ilicet, and scilicet; also in the compounds of dies, as biduum, triduum, meridies; and, lastly, in all those compounds of which the parts may be separated, such as lucrifacio, agricultura, siquis, because the i at the end of the first word is naturally long, and remains so. 4. o is short, hodie, duodecim, sacrosanctus, but long in compounds with contro, intro, retro, and quando (quandoquidem alone forms an exception); it is long in alioqui, ceterōqui, utroque, and in those

* [The second syllable in connubium is naturally short, but it is occasionally lengthened by the poets in the arsis of the foot. Compare Virg., En., i., 73, with iii., 319.]-Am. Ed.

t[The re in refert comes, according to some, from the dative rei; according to others, from the ablative re, of the noun res, and the verb fero. Verrius Flaccus, the ancient grammarian, as cited by Festus, was in favour of the dative. Reisig, on the contrary, maintains that refert comes from the ablative re and the verb fert, and makes refert mea, for example, equivalent to re fert mea, "it brings (something) to bear in my case." (Reisig, Vorlesungen, p. 640, ed. Haase. Benary, Römische Lautlehre, vol. i., p. 37. Hartung, über die Casus, p. 84. Schmid, de Pronom., p. 79.) Key, on the other hand, is in favour of the accusative, and considers refert mea as originally rem fert meam, and, as an omitted m leaves a long vowel, he accounts in this way for the long vowels in re and mea. (Key, Alphabet, p. 78.)]-Am. Ed.

[The classification here given is faulty and confused. In reccido, redduco, relligio, and relliquie the explanation is this, that the ancient form of re was red, and this final d, in three of the words given, changes to another consonant by the principle of assimilation. On the other hand, reppuli, repperi, rettuli, and rettudi are all deduced from perfects of reduplication. (Anthon's Lat. Pros., ed. 1842, p. 129; Journal of Education, vol. i., p. 95.)]-Am. Ed.

[Compare Journal of Education, vol. i., p. 95.]—Am. Ed.

Greek words in which the o represents the Greek w, as in geometria. 5. u and y are short, as in quadrupes, Polyphemus.

4. In regard to the quantity of Final Syllables, the following special rules must be observed:

A. MONOSYLLABIC WORDS.

[§ 24.] 1. All monosyllables ending in a vowel are long, except the particles which are attached to other words: que, vě, cè, ně, tě (tutě), psě (reapsě), and ptě, (suoptě).

Note.-Ne, the interrogative particle, is always short, and is attached to other words as an enclitic, as in videsne, dost thou see? or dost thou not see? In the ordinary pronunciation it was still more shortened by throwing off the vowel, as in credon' tibi hoc nunc ? and, in case of an s preceding, this letter was likewise dropped, as ain' tu? for aisne tu? satin' recte? satin' salvae? for satisne recte? satisne salvae? The conjunction në (lest, or that not) is long. Respecting ne, as an inseparable negative particle in compositions, see above, § 23.

2. Among the monosyllables ending in a consonant, the substantives are long, as sōl, vīr, fūr, jūs; and all those are short which are not substantives, as ut, ět, něc, în, ăn, ăd, quid, sed, quis, quot. The following substantives, however, are short: cor, fel, měl, vir, and os (gen. ossis), and probably, also, mas, a male being, and vas, a surety, since they have the a short in the genitive: măris, vădis. Some words, on the other hand, are long, although they are not substantives; as ēn, nōn, quin, sīn, crās, plūs, cūr, and pār, with its compounds, and also the adverbs in ic or uc, as sic, hic, huc. The monosyllabic forms of declension and conjugation follow the general rules about the quantity of final syllables, and dās, fles, and scis, accordingly, are long, while dăt, flet, and scit are short; his, quōs, quās are long, like the terminations ōs and ās in declension. So, also, the ablative singular hoc and hac. The nominative hic and the neuter hoc, on the other hand, although the vowel is naturally short, are commonly used as long, because the pronunciation was hicc and hoce (as a compensation for the ancient form hice, hoce).* The abridged imperatives retain the quantity of the root, so that dic and dūc are long, while fuc and fer are short.

Note. We formerly thought, with other grammarians, that fac was long, and that we ought to read face in those passages in which it is found short. (See Heinsius and Burmann on Ovid, Heroid., ii., 98.) But there is no satisfactory evidence for fac being long, and the instances quoted by Vossius (Aristarch., ii., 29) have now been altered for other reasons.

* [Compare Anthon's Lat. Pros., p. 82, not.]—Am. Ed.