tive ocius has, at the same time, the meaning of a positive. Of valde, very (contracted from valide, 9 263), the degrees validius and validissime do not, indeed, occur in Cicero, but are used in the silver age of the language.

[§ 294.] 3. The primitive adverbs, and those derived from other words by the terminations im and tus, together with the various adverbs enumerated in § 270, foll., that is, in general all adverbs which are not derived from adjectives and participles by the endings e (or o instead of it) and ter, do not admit the degrees of comparison. The only exceptions are diu and saepe: diutius, diutissime ; saepius, saepissime. Nuper has a superlative nuperrime, but no comparative, and satis and temperi have the comparatives satius (also used as a neuter adjective) and temperius (in Cicero). Respecting secius, the comparative of secus, see § 283.

Note.-There are a few diminutive adverbs: clanculum from clam, primulum from primum, celeriuscule, saepiuscule, from the comparatives celerius and saepius. Belle, prettily, is a diminutive of bene, and from belle are derived bellus and bellissimus, without a comparative, and hence the adverb bellissime.

CHAPTER LXV.

PREPOSITIONS.*

[§ 295.] 1. PREPOSITIONS are indeclinable words, or, to use the grammatical term, particles, which express the relations of nouns to one another, or to verbs; e. g., a town in Italy; a journey through Italy; my love for you; the first century after Christ; he came out of his house; he lives near Berlin; on the Rhine, &c. They govern in

*["Prepositions are pronouns in the strictest sense of the word. They express relations of place, and in their ordinary use are employed to denote the relative positions of visible objects. Grammarians tell us that they govern cases, and it is the prevailing practice to arrange them according to the cases which they are said to govern. But this is palpably false; for, in all languages which have any inflections, a case may express by itself any relation which the addition of a preposition could give to it, and, in languages which, like the Sanscrit, have a complete assortment of cases, many relations of place are invariably expressed by the cases without any particle prefixed. Such would have been the fact in the Greek and Latin languages too, but the rules of euphony, convenience, the influence of writing, and a multitude of other causes, have contributed to mutilate the terminations of the nouns, as well as of the verbs, and thus prepositions, the force of which was originally included in the case endings, have come to be prefixed for the sake of greater distinctness, just as in Greek the particular noun is placed after the pronoun, called the article, in repetitions, and just as the nominative case is prefixed to the verb." (Donaldson's New Cratylus, p. 212.)]—Am. Ed.

Latin either the accusative or ablative, and some (though mostly in a different sense) both cases. Their Latin name is derived from the fact of their being placed, with a few exceptions, before their noun. We have already observed (Chap. LXII.) that a considerable number of these particles are properly adverbs, but are justly reckoned among the prepositions, as they more or less frequently govern a case. Apart from their etymology, and considering only their practical application in the language, we have the following classes of prepositions :

1. Prepositions with the Accusative.

Ad, to.
Apud, with, near.

Ante, before (in regard to both time and place).
Adversus and adversum, against.

Cis, citra, on this side.

Circa and circum, around, about.

Circiter, about (indefinite time or number).

Contra, against.

Erga, towards.

Extra, without.

Infra, beneath, below (the contrary of supra).

Inter, among, between.

Intra, within (the contrary of extra).

Juxta, near, beside.

Ob, on account of.

Penes, in the power of.

Per, through.

Pone, behind.

Post, after (both of time and space).

Praeter, beside.

Prope, near.

Propter, near, on account of.

Secundum, after (in time or succession), in accordance

with; as, secundum naturam vivere.

Supra, above.

Trans, on the other side.

Versus (is put after its noun), towards a place; e.

Galliam versus, Massiliam versus.

Ultra, beyond.

2. Prepositions with the Ablative.

8., in

A, ab, abs (a before consonants; ab before vowels and

some consonants; and abs only in the combination of abs te, for which, however, a te, also, is used), from, by. Absque, without (obsolete).

Cōram, before, or in the presence of.

Cum, with.

De, down from, concerning.

E and ex (e before consonants only, ex before both vowels and consonants), out of, from.

Prae, before, owing to.

Pro, before, for.

Sine, without.

Tenus (is put after its noun), as far as, up to.

3. Prepositions with the Accusative and Ablative. In, with the accus.-1, in, on, to, to the question Whither?-2, against. With the ablat., in, on, to the ques

tion Where?

Sub, with the accus.-1, under, to the question Whither? 2, about or towards, in an indefinite statement of time; as, sub vesperam, towards evening. With the ablat., under, to the question Where? Desub is also used in this sense.

Super, with the accus., above, over; with the ablat., upon, concerning, like de. Subter, under, beneath, is used with the accusative, whether it expresses being in or motion to a place; it rarely occurs with the ablative, and is in general little used. Remarks upon the Signification of the Prepositions. [ 296.] 1. Prepositions with the Accusative.

Ad denotes in general an aim or object both in regard to time and place, and answers to the questions Whither? and Till when? e. g., venio, proficiscor ad te; Sophocles ad summam senectutem tragoedias fecit. Hence it also denotes a fixed time; as, ad horam, at the hour; ad diem, on the day fixed upon; ad tempus facere aliquid, to do a thing at the right time. In other cases ad tempus signifies for a time;" e. g., perturbatio animi plerumque brevis est et ad tempus. Sometimes, also, it denotes the approach of time; as, ad lucem, ad vesperam, ad extremum, towards daybreak, evening, towards the end; and the actual arrival of a certain time, as in Livy, ad prima signa veris profectus, at the first sign of spring.

66

Ad, in a local sense, signifies "near a place," to the question Where? as, ad urbem esse, to be near the town; ad portas urbis; cruentissima pugna ad lacum Trasimenum; pugna navalis ad Tenedum; urbs sita est ad mare; it is apparently the same as in, in such phrases as ad aedem Bellonae; or with the omission of the word aedem: ad Opis; ad omnia deorum templa gratulationem fecimus; negotium habere ad portum; ad forum; but in all these cases there is an allusion to buildings or spaces connected with the places named. With numerals ad is equivalent to our "to the amount of" or "nearly;" e. g., ad ducentos, to the amount of two hundred, or nearly two

hundred, and without any case it is an adverb like circiter, as in Cæsar, occisis ad hominum milibus quatuor, reliqui in oppidum rejecti sunt; Liv., viii., 18, ad viginti matronis per viatorem accitis (ablat. absol.); iv., 59, quorum ad duo milia et quingenti capiuntur. The phrase omnes ad unum, ad unum omnes perierunt, means, "even to the very last man," including the last himself.

Ad, denoting an object or purpose, is of very common occurrence, and hence arises its signification of "in respect of;" e. g., vidi forum comitiumque adornatum, ad speciem magnifico ornatu, ad sensum cogitationemque acerbo et lugubri; or facinus ad memoriam posteritatis insigne; homo ad labores belli impiger, ad usum et disciplinam peritus; ad consilia prudens, &c. But this preposition is used also in figurative relations to express a model, standard, and object of comparison, where we say "according to," or "in comparison with;" as, ad modum, ad effigiem, ad similitudinem, ad speciem alicujus rei, ad normam, ad exemplum, ad arbitrium et nutum, ad voluntatem alicujus facere aliquid; persuadent mathematici, terram ad universum coeli complexum quasi puncti instar obtinere. Particular phrases are, ad verbum, word for word; nihil ad hanc rem, ad hunc hominem, nothing in comparison with this thing or this man.

[§ 297.] Apud, "with," both in its proper and figurative sense; e. g., with me the opinion of the multitude has no weight, apud me nihil valet hominum opinio. In connexion with names of places it signifies "near," like ad; e. g., Epaminondas Lacedaemonios vicit apud Mantineam; male pugnatum est apud Caudium, apud Anienem (the name of a river). It must, however, be observed that the early writers sometimes (see my note on Cic., in Verr., iv., 22), and Tacitus and later authors frequently, use apud for in, and not merely for ad; as, Augustus apud urbem Nolam extinctus est; statua apud theatrum Pompeii locatur; apud Syriam morbo absumptus est; apud senatum dixit, and in many other passages, in which the context leaves no doubt. In apud praetorem and apud judices the preposition must likewise be taken to denote the place of the judicial transactions; we use in this case "before," which, however, cannot be rendered in Latin by ante. Apud is used, also, with the names of authors, instead of in with the name of their works; as, apud Xenophontem, apud Terentium, apud Ciceronem legitur, &c., but not in Xenophonte, because in Latin the name of an author is not used for that of his works, as in our language.

Ante, "before," denotes also a preference; as, ante omnia hoc mihi maxime placet, above all other things; hic erat gloria militari ante omnes, he excelled all.

[ 298.] Cis and citra are commonly used in reference to place; e. g., cis Taurum montem, and are the contrary of trans; citra Rubiconem, on this side of the Rubicon. But in later, though good prose writers (Quintilian, Pliny), it frequently occurs for sine, "without," as in citra invidiam nominare; citra musicen grammatice non potest esse perfecta nec dici citra scientiam musices potest.

Circum is the more ancient, and circa the later form; Cicero uses them both in the sense of "around" (a place); and circum, with the strengthened meaning, "all around;" e. g., urbes quae circum Capuam sunt, and urbes circa Capuam; homines circum and circa se habere; terra circum axem se convertit; homo praetorem circum omnia fora sectatur. The phrases circum amicos, circum vicinos, circum villas, circum insulas mittere, signify to send around to one's friends, &c. Circa is used, besides, of time also, in the sense of sub (but not by Cicero); Livy and Curtius, e. g., say, circa lucis ortum, circa eandem horam, circa Idus. Circa in the sense of concerning, like de, erga, and adversus, the Greek kará, occurs only in the silver age of the language, in Quintilian, Pliny, and Tacitus; e. g., varia circum haec opinio; circa deos et religiones negligentior; publica circa bonas artes socordia. Circiter is used, it is true, with an accusative, as in circiter meridiem, about noon; circiter Calendas, circiter Idus Martias, circiter octavam horam, but it is more frequently an adverb.

[ý 299.] Adversus and contra originally signify "opposite to;" but they

express also the direction of an action towards an object, with this dif ference, that contra always denotes hostility, like our "against" (while erga denotes a friendly disposition, "towards"), whereas adversus is used in either sense. Thus Cicero says, praesidia illa, quae pro templis omnibus cernitis, contra vim collocata sunt; and frequently contra naturam, contra leges; but meus erga te amor, paternus animus, benivolentia, and similar expressions. We say adversus aliquem impetum facere as well as modestum, justum esse, and reverentiam adhibere adversus aliquem. But erga also occurs now and then in a hostile sense, not, indeed, in Cicero, but in Nepos and Tacitus; e. g., Nep., Datam., 10, odio communi, quod erga regem susceperant. [$ 300.] Extra, "without," "outside of," occurs also in the sense of praeter, excepting, apart; as, extra jocum.

Infra, e. g., infra lunam nihil est nisi mortale et caducum. It also implies a low estimation; as in infra se omnia humana ducere, judicare, or infra se posita; and "below" or "under" in regard to measure or size: uri sunt magnitudine paulo infra elephantos.

Inter denotes also duration of time, like our "during ;" as, inter tot annos, inter coenam, inter epulas. With regard to its ordinary signification "among," we must observe that inter se is our "one another;" e. g., amant inter se e pueri, obtrectant inter se, furtim inter se aspiciebant, where, in reality, another pronoun is omitted.

Intra," within," to both questions Where? and Whither? intra hostium praesidia esse and venire; nullam intra Oceanum praedonum navem esse auditis; majores nostri Antiochum intra montem Taurum regnare jusserunt. It also denotes time, both in its duration and a period which has not come to its close, e. g., omnia commemorabo quae intra decem annos nefarie facta sunt, during the last ten years; intra nonum diem opera absoluta sunt, intra decimum diem urbem cepit, that is, before nine or ten days had elapsed.

Juxta, "beside," e. g., juxta murum, juxta urbem, sometimes also "next to❞ in rank and estimation, as in Livy: fides humana colitur apud eos juxta divinas religiones. But it is only unclassical authors that use juxta in the sense of secundum, or according to.

Ob,*" on account of," implies a reason or occasion, e. g., ob egregiam virtutem donatus; ob delictum; ob eam rem, for this reason; quamobrem or quamobcausam, for which reason; ob hoc ipsum, for this very reason. In the sense of ante, its use is more limited, as in ob oculos versari.

Penes rarely occurs as a preposition of place in the sense of apud, and is more commonly used as denoting in the possession or power of; e. g., penes regem omnis potestas est; penes me arbitrium est hujus rei.

[3301.] Per, denoting place, signifies "through," and occurs very frequently; but it also signifies "in" in the sense of "throughout;" e. g., Caesar conjurationis socios in vinculis habendos per municipia censuit, that is, in all the municipia; per domos hospitaliter invitantur; milites fuga per proximas civitates dissipati sunt. When it denotes time, it signifies during per noctem cernuntur sidera; per hosce dies, during these days; per idem tempus, during the same time; per triennium, per secessionem plebis, during the secession of the plebs.

scelus

Per, with the accusative of persons, is "through," "by the instrumentality of," e. g., per te salvus sum. Per, in many cases, expresses the manner in which a thing is done; as, per litteras, by letter; per injuriam, per et latrocinium, per potestatem auferre, eripere, with injustice, criminally, by authority; per ludum ac jocum fortunis omnibus evertit, by play and joke he drove him out of his property; per iram, from or in anger; per simulationem

*[The Latin ob and the Greek πí appear to have had one and the same origin, and are both connected with the Sanscrit abhi and api. In Ennius, ob is a preposition signifying merely motion to a place; thus, in Festus, "ob Romam noctu legiones ducere coepit," and so, also, in the fragment of the Telamon, quoted by Cicero (Tusc. Disp., iii., 18). Compare obeo, "to go to," "to visit." New Cratylus, p. 219.]—Am. Ed.