written similar works, most probably in metre, and shortly after him Avianus composed in elegiacs 42 fables on subjects taken from Babrius. The collections of fables of the so-called Romulus, the Anonymus Neveleti, Baldo and Alexander Neckam belong to the middle ages.

1. The fable of the crested lark in Ennius (in satiris . . versibus quadratis), Gell. II 19 Vahlen's edition of Ennius p. 159-161. The fable of the sick lion (Hor. Ep. I 1, 73 ss.) appears already in Lucilius (Non. p. 303, 17 sqq.). Others in Horace, S. II 6, 79 sqq. Epp. 17, 19 sqq. 10, 34 sqq. Allusions to fables in Horace S. II 3, 299. 5, 56. Epp. I 3, 19. 16, 45.

2. Seneca Cons. ad Polyb. 8, 17: non audeo te usque eo producere ut fabellas quoque et Aesopeos logos, intemptatum romanis ingeniis opus, solita tibi venustate conectas. Auson. Epist. 16, 74-82; apologos.. Aesopiam trimetriam quam vertit exili stilo, pedestre concinnans opus, fandi Titianus artifex. ib. 27 he praises Symmachus: quis ita ad Aesopi venustatem . . accedat?

24. Satire was introduced into literature through Ennius who gave the title of Saturae to a collection of his miscellaneous poems. This example was followed perhaps by his nephew Pacuvius, certainly by the Roman knight C. Lucilius. To criticise public circumstances (a conspicuous feature in the works of the latter), henceforth became a principal feature of Satire, since Horace, who after a few less significant successors wrote in Lucilius' manner, endowed with brilliant gifts, energetically pursued the same direction, though exclusively in social and literary life, and confining himself to hexameters. The Saturae Menippeae of the polyhistor Varro, composed in a free interchange of prose and verse, found in Nero's time imitators in Seneca (Añoxoλozývτwois) and Petronius, in the fifth Christian century in Martianus Capella (though in him prose is predominant) and in the sixth in Boethius' work de consolatione philosophiae. On the other hand Horace had an imitator in the youthful Stoic Persius. Under Domitian Turnus and Sulpicia wrote satires, after his death the rhetor Juvenalis his gloomy moral lectures and portraits. A satirical spirit appears also in Apuleius' prose - novel, the Metamorphoses, and in several apologetic and polemic works of Tertullianus. In the fourth century Tetradius wrote satires, in the fifth Claudian his invectives against Rufinus and Eutropius in epic metre.

1. Diomed. III p. 481 sq. P. = 485, 30 sqq. K.: satira dicitur carmen apud Romanos nunc quidem maledicum et ad carpenda hominum vitia archaeae comoediae charactere (Quintil. X 1, 93 says more justly satira quidem tota nostra est) compositum, quale scripserunt Lucilius et Horatius, et Persius. at olim carmen quod ex variis poematibus constabat satira vocabatur, quale scripserunt Pacuvius et Ennius. The derivation of the name from satura lanx (see above 6, 2) would fit satire as a branch of literature, even the satire of Ennius; if Ennius has connected this title with the old (dramatic) farce, he must mean it humorously, but this is not very probable, as he includes such serious poems as his Scipio.

2. Hor. S. I 10, 54 (46) sq.: hoc erat, experto frustra Varrone Atacino, atque quibusdam aliis, melius quod scribere possem. To these quidam alii most probably belonged the polyhistor Varro with his four books of Saturae, then L. Albucius (cuius Luciliano charactere sunt libelli, Varro R. R. III 2, 17), C. Trebonius (Cic. ad Fam. XII 16, 3) and the freedman Saevius Nicanor (Suet. gramm. 5) and Lenaeus (ib. 15.) Lyd. de magistr. I 41: μεθ ̓ ὃν (Lucilius) καὶ τοὺς μετ ̓ αὐτόν, οὓς καλοῦσι Ρωμαῖοι σατυρικούς, οἱ νεώτεροι . . τὴν σατυρικὴν ἐκράτυναν κωμῳδίαν, Οράτιος μὲν οὐκ ἔξω τῆς τέχνης χωρῶν, Πέρσιος δὲ τὸν ποιητὴν Σώφρονα μιμήσασθαι θέλων τὸ Λυκόφρονος παρῆλθεν ἀμαυρόν· Τούρνος δὲ καὶ Ἰουβενάλιος καὶ Πετρώνιος αὐτόθεν ταῖς λοιδορίαις ἐπεξελθόντες τὸν σατυρικὸν νόμον παρέτρωσαν.

3. Quintil. X 1, 95: alterum illud etiam prius satirae genus, sed nor sola carminum varietate mixtum, condidit Terentius Varro, vir Romanorum eruditissimus. The Cynic Menippus of Gadara, a pupil of the Cynic Diogenes, of the generation next to Alexander, had as a oлovdoyelolos treated serious subjects in the practical parts of philosophy in a jocular tone. The decay of the sense of beauty in his time and Menippus' position as a Cynic render it probable that he had already preceded Varro in the mixture of prose and verse which in him seems sometimes to take place in the middle of a sentence: see A. Riese in Jahn's Jahrb. 95 p. 646-648. Cic. Acad. post. I 2, 8 lets Varro say: in illis veteribus nostris quae Menippum imitati, non interpretati, quadam hilaritate conspersimus multa admixta ex intima philosophia, multa dicta dialectice. Cf. Gell. II 18, 7: Menippus. ., cuius libros M. Varro in satiris aemulatus est quas alii cynicas, ipse appellat Menippeas. In the manner of Varro's satirae Menippeae are also the Emperor Julianus' Kaioages, except that they are in Greek.

4. According to Porphyr. on Hor. Ep. I 3, 1, Julius Florus, a contemporary of Horace, was saturarum scriptor cuius sunt electae ex Ennio, Lucilio, Varrone saturae. In the same period as Juvenal, Julius Rufus wrote satiras (Martial. X 99), as well as according to tradition Silius (Schol. Juv. I 20: Lucillium dicit.. vel Silium et ipsum sui temporis satyricum, qui omnes, ut Probus refert, ex Aurunca fuerunt) and Manlius Vopiscus (Stat. Silv. I 3, 103). To the third century is attributed the will of a pig, a parody of the legal forms of a will, published for the

first time by Peter Lambecius, comm. de bibl. Caes. Vindob. III p. 346 sqq., repeated by Brissonius de formulis VII p. 677 and others. In the fourth century Ausonius (Epist. 15) says of his alumnus Tetradius e. g. (9 sqq.): rudes Camenas qui Suessae praevenis aevo que cedis, non stilo: later on Rutilius Nam. of his friend Decius (Itin. I 599-606): huius vulnificis satira ludente Camenis nec Turnus potior nec Iuvenalis erit (603 sq.)

5. Is. Casaubonus de satyrica Graecorum poesi et Roman. satira, Paris 1605. Halle 1774. J. A. Vulpi, de satirae lat. natura et ratione eiusque scriptoribus, Padua 1744. G. König, de satira Rom., Oldenb. 1795. Flögel, History of Comic Literature II p. 1-57. Wernsdorf, poetae latini minores, III p. XIII-XXVI. C. L. Roth, on the theory and internal history of Roman Satire, Stuttgart, 1848. W. Teuffel in Pauly's RealEncycl. VI 1 p. 819-822. C. Scheibe, de satirae rom. origine et progressu Zitttau 1849. 4o. H. Berning, de satirarum scriptoribus Rom., Recklingshausen 1850. 4o. Fr. Haase, on the Satire of the Romans, in Prutz's German Museum 1851 p. 858-867. J. M. Söderhelm, de vernacula Rom. satira ad ideam eius nativam adumbrata, Helsingsfors 1852. 4o. C. Petermann, on the origin and Idea of Roman Satire, Glogau 1856. 4o. Jung, de satira rom., Neisse 1862. 4o.

25. The Idyl as a species, with its feminine and tender longing for a missing ideal, was on the whole foreign to the Romans. Tibullus possesses the greatest share of idyllic spirit, after him Virgil and, in his peculiar fashion, also Horace. But on the whole the Romans were too well acquainted with country-life to idealise it. Virgil, who had grown up in the country, in his youth at first chanced upon this species and imitated Theocritus without coming up to him, even spoiling this kind of poetry by giving it an allegorical character. But the Moretum is a proof of the good humour of its author. Valerius Cato's Dirae are midway between Idyl and Satire, though more akin to the first, especially by their amoebaean composition. In the beginning of Nero's reign we have the seven Eclogues of Calpurnius Siculus, imitated by Nemesianus at the end of the third century. Perhaps to the same time. belong Septimius Serenus' Opuscula ruralia and Falisca, in lyric metres, but Idyls as to their subjects. Ausonius' Eldviα are far from being so, a better claim to this name belongs to many parts of the Mosella, and at the end of the fourth century we have the poem de mortibus boum by the Christian rhetor Severus Sanctus Endelechius. Seven poems of Claudianus, of various character, and partly in epic, partly in elegiac metre, bear the collective title of Eidyllia.

1. Diomed. III p. 483 P. 486, 17 K.: bucolica dicuntur poemata secundum carmen pastorale composita.

2. In Virgil's Georg. see espec. II 448 sqq. Horace (S. II 6. Ep. I 10) cherishes and praises rustic life as healthful and independent. Macrob. Sat. III 98, 19: Suevius, vir longe doctissimus, in idyllio quod inscribitur Moretum, from which he proceeds to quote 8 hexameters very different in tone from the pseudo-Virgilian Moretum; cf. ib. VI 5, 15: Suevius in libro quinto. Ovid most prohably alludes to Idyls ex Ponto IV 16, 35: (cum) Naidas a Satyris caneret Fontanus amatas. In the Augustan period M. Valerius Messala wrote in Greek Idyls of an erotic character (Ps. Verg. Catal. 11, 13—24).

3. Hunger, de poesi Rom. bucolica, falle 1841, R. Unger, Valg. Ruf. p. 285-326. W. Teuffel in Pauly's R. E. I 2 p. 2528 sq.

26. Lyric poetry, or the poetry of the individual in its widest sense, did not greatly harmonise with the practical Roman mind, and was thus cultivated by them only late and to a limited extent. At a comparatively early time occur only those kinds which had which had a certain bearing upon actual life, e. g. religious songs (of the Salii, fratres arvales, the hymn of Andronicus), songs in honour of the departed, complaints, enchantments, and other things which became carmina. by the employment of the Saturnian metre. Besides, the national bent for sharp criticism led at an early time to abusive ditties, such as the Fescenninae, the occentationes, the soldiers' songs on the triumphator, and probably many cantica interpersed in the popular farces. Of the literary branches the easiest, the epigram, was first cultivated, partly to serve as inscription, partly as the mere product of wit and occasion, partly also as a small erotic elegy. For the first purpose it was, after Ennius, more and more employed on sepulchres and pictures, sometimes in hexameters only (as in Plautus' epitaph), sometimes in distichs (as in the epitaph of Cn. Cornelius Scipio Hispanus, praetor (615 v. c.), most systematically in Varro's Imagines. Representatives of the other two uses of the epigram are in the first half of the seventh century Valerius Aedituus, Porcius Licinus, Q. Lutatius Catulus, Quintius Atta; in the second half, Varro Atacinus, Licinius Calvus and Catullus, perhaps also Hortensius, C. Memmius Gemellus, Q. Scaevola, and others to whom erotic poems are attributed; in the Augustan period Augustus himself, Domitius Marsus, Pedo, Corniferus, Sulpicia. Under Domitian the epigram in various forms was treated in a masterly manner by Martial;

in Ausonius also there are many things of this kind, especially in the style of sepulchral inscriptions. Even in the sixth century we have a collection of epigrams by Luxorius. In modern times these productions have been collected and published under the name of the Latin Anthology.

1. Lyricorum iucunditas, elegorum lasciviae, iamborum amaritudo, epigrammatum lusus, Tac. dial. 10. Ecquis nostrorum poetarum tam fluentes carminum delicias fecisset (as Anacreon)? nisi Catullus forte pauca et Calvus itidem pauca. nam Laevius implicata et Hortensius invenusta et Cinna inlepida et Memmius dura, ac deinceps omnes rudia fecerunt atque absona. Gell. XIX 9, 7; and ib. 10 sqq. versus Valeri Aeditui, . . item Porcii Licini et Q. Catuli are quoted, quibus mundius, venustius, limatius, tersius graecum latinumve nihil quidquam reperiri puto. Plin. Ep. V 3, 5 enumerates as authors of erotic poems: M. Tullium, C. Calvum, Asinium Polionem, M. Messalam, Q. Hortensium, M. Brutum, L. Sullam, Q. Catulum, Q. Scaevolam, Ser. Sulpicium, Varronem, Torquatum, immo Torquatos, C. Memmium, Lentulum Gaetulicum, Annaeum Senecam, Lucanum, .. Verginium Rufum, .. D. Julium, D. Augustum, D. Nernam, Tiberium Caesarem; then Neronem, further on (ib. 6) P. Vergilius, Cornelius Nepos et prius Attius Enniusque. There seems to have been an erotic anthology at an early period, from which it is supposed that Pliny, Gellius (1. c.) and Apuleius (apol. 9) derived their special knowledge in this field. For the epigrams see above 11, 3. Cicero's freedman, M. Tullius Laurea, wrote epigrams in Latin (Plin. N. H. XXXI 2) as well as in Greek (Anth. gr. II p. 90 sq.)

1. Catalecta veterum poetarum by Jos. Scaliger, Lugd. Bat. 1593. 1617. Epigrammata vett. e codicibus et lapidibus collecta, by P. Pithoeus, Paris 1590. Anthologia latina by P. Burmann, Amsterdam 1759 and 1773. 2 voll. 4o. Anthologia vett. latt. epigrammatum et poem. ed. H. Meyer, Lips. 1835. 2 voll. [Critical edition by A. Riese in the Teubner collection.] A critical revision of the old materials and collection of the numerous materials recently accumulated have been promised by L. Müller.

27. Iambics, familiar from the drama, were at an early time employed for other purposes, e. g. for epitaphs, as in that of Pacuvius. For the carmen maledicum the iambic metre seems to have been first employed among the Romans by Furius Bibaculus, after him by Catullus, Calvus, also the younger Cato, Horace in his Epodes, and Bassus. The Imperial period was not favourable to this species, and iambics were then mostly employed without special purpose. But part of the poems of Martial is in this metre, and in a later period Ausonius endeavoured to revive iambics in their original application.

1. Diomed. III p. 581 P. 485, 11 sqq. K.: iambus est carmen maledicum. . . cuius carminis praecipui scriptores. . apud Romanos Lucilius